Grade Level Differences Research Articles

Creative Thinking in Science: Influence of Ethnicity, Gender and Grade Level in Co-educational Schools, Kenya

The purpose of the study was to investigate the influence of ethnicity, gender and grade level on creative thinking in science among co-educational secondary school students. The study employed cross-sectional design with purposive sampling through which 363 students were sampled from 2 co-educational secondary schools in Kakamega (n = 198) and Siaya (n = 165) counties of Kenya. The entire sample was made of grade 9 (n = 95), grade 10 (n = 99), grade 11 (n = 75), and grade 12 (n = 94) students. The same sample consisted of 168 males and 195 females. Students Science Creativity Questionnaire (SSCQ) was adapted from Smith (2019), piloted and used to measure creative thinking in science. The instrument measured four dimensions of divergent creative thinking as fluency, flexibility, elaboration and originality. The data were analysed using a 4 x 2 x 2 MANOVA. The findings indicated statistically significant ethnic differences between Luo students from Siaya county and Luhya students from Kakamega county with regard to fluency and flexibility in favor of Luhya students. There were no statistically significant gender differences in creative thinking in science and statistically significant grade level differences in the dimensions of fluency, elaboration and originality. The findings have implications for pedagogic practice. Science teachers could deliberately make learning environments characterised creative learning activities which require learners to to generate multiple ideas and encourage students to solve scientific problems. Such learning environments could be made to encourage gender inclusive pedagogic practices and tailor creative learning experiences to grade level of learners. The discussion, conclusions and recommendations of the study are herein explained.

Academic Pressure and Psychological Imbalance in High School Students: Predictors of Depression via Polynomial Regression and Response Surface Analysis.

The purpose of this study was to explore how the congruence between academic pressure and psychological imbalance affects depressive symptoms in adolescents and to further explore grade-level differences in these effects among high school students. The study population consisted of 29,975high school students from 20 schools in Liuyang City, Hunan Province. The Mental Health Scale for Secondary School Students (MSSMHS) and Self-Depression Scale (SDS) were used to assess academic pressure, psychological imbalance and depressive symptoms. The effects of academic pressure and psychological imbalance were examined by polynomial regression and response surface analysis. The results showed that the lowest level of academic pressure (F = 35.99, p < 0.001), psychological imbalance (F = 54.50, p < 0.001), and depressive symptoms (F = 9.36, p < 0.001) was found in repeaters, while the highest level was found in twelfth graders. Academic pressure was positively associated with psychological disequilibrium, and both were positively associated with adolescent depressive symptoms. Furthermore, when academic pressure and psychological imbalance are aligned, adolescent depressive symptoms increase with the first two. In addition, adolescent depressive symptoms decreased as the difference between academic pressure and psychological imbalance increased. This study elucidates the non-linear relationship between academic pressure, psychological imbalance and depressive symptoms, and that adopting appropriate strategies to reduce academic pressure and adjust psychological balance is crucial for the prevention of depression in adolescents.

Physical Activities in Hong Kong Kindergartens: Grade-Level Differences and Venue Utilization

ABSTRACT This study aimed to (1) investigate the provision of physical activities in Hong Kong kindergartens across different grade levels and (2) examine the availability and utilization of venues in or near kindergartens for physical activities. We surveyed 526 hong Kong kindergarten teachers. Descriptive statistics and parametric statistical techniques (e.g. one-way ANOVA) were employed. Participants across all three grade levels reported implementing physical activities relatively infrequently (M = 2.47), with higher provision of unstructured physical activities involving low degrees of physical exertion and risk. However, K3 teachers (M = 2.55, SD = .45) were found to provide more physical activities than K1 teachers (M = 2.43, SD = .47, p = .033) and K2 teachers (M = 2.42, SD = .42, p = .030). Indoor venues were more commonly reported in or near kindergartens and were more frequently utilized for physical activities. In contrast, the availability and utilization of outdoor venues were limited. The results highlight the distance between internationally accepted physical activity guidelines and actual practices in Hong Kong kindergartens. We conclude that the limited opportunities for physical activities may not be enough for children to develop themselves optimally. Offering longer kindergarten programs and a wider range of easily accessible venues for physical activities would be vital to improving this situation.

Content Analysis of Individualized Education Programs for Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

The impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity (ADHD) disorder results in significant challenges in academic, behavioral, and social domains, necessitating targeted interventions. Although a substantial number of students with ADHD receive individualized education programs (IEPs), little is known about the most common accommodations and interventions included, and there is a dearth of research examining the alignment of these programs with the student’s specific areas of functional deficit. This current mixed-method study analyzes IEPs of 209 students with ADHD in kindergarten through seventh grade, revealing strong alignment in goals and support for academic areas. However, significant gaps existed in addressing social, emotional, and behavioral difficulties, with fewer than half of the students having measurable goals for these areas. Regional and grade level differences in IEP content underscore the need for standardized approaches. Impact Statement This study sheds light on the content and alignment of IEPs for students with ADHD, revealing strengths in academic goal alignment but gaps in addressing social, emotional, and behavioral needs. It calls for improved alignment between present levels of performance and annual goals/supportive accommodations and interventions for students with ADHD. These findings underscore the need for comprehensive support systems to address the diverse needs of students with ADHD and promote their long-term success.

Effects of physical activity on anxiety levels in college students: mediating role of emotion regulation.

To explore the effects of physical activity on anxiety levels in college students, as well as to examine the mediating role of emotion regulation. A convenience sample of 1,721 college students from Shanghai, Jiangsu, Shandong, Guangxi, and Hunan was used to conduct an evaluation and a survey through the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS-3), the Anxiety Self-Rating Scale (SAS), and the Emotion Regulation Scale (ERQ). College students' anxiety level, cognitive reappraisal, and expression inhibition scores were (44.72±10.37), (30.16±6.51), and (16.96±4.99), respectively. There were significant grade and physical activity level differences in anxiety levels and cognitive reappraisal, and significant gender and physical activity level differences in expression inhibition among college students. Process model 4 mediated effect regression analysis showed that physical activity had a significant positive effect on cognitive reappraisal (R 2 = 0.14, β = 0.04, P<0.001), and physical activity did not have a significant expression inhibition effect (R 2 = 0.17, β = 0.01, P = 0.27). Physical activity (β = -0.03, P = 0.012), cognitive reappraisal (β = -0.59, P<0.001), and expression inhibition had a significant effect on (β = 0.57, P<0.001) anxiety levels (R 2 = 0.37). In the model effect relationship, the direct and indirect effects of physical activity on anxiety levels were -0.028 and -0.019, respectively. Physical activity has a significant negative effect on college students' anxiety levels. Cognitive reappraisal is a mediating variable for the effect of physical activity on anxiety levels. The higher the level of physical activity and the higher the intensity of the activity, the lower the level of anxiety.

Analysis of high school students' awareness of the psychosocial effects of internet addiction

The present study aims to determine secondary school students' awareness of the psychosocial consequences of Internet addiction and to investigate differences in the level of awareness based on students' sociodemographic characteristics (Sex, grade level, number of family members, parent's marital status, education and occupation of the parents, and the family's monthly income). A cross-sectional descriptive study was conducted from December 10, 2022, to December 30, 2023. The sample included (765) secondary school students were (375 males and 390 females). The population was composed of 10th and 12th grade students withdrawn from ten high schools located in the Babylon Governorate in Iraq. The results of the study revealed a variation in participants’ awareness of their knowledge of the psychosocial effects of Internet addiction, as more than half of them (57.5%) recorded a fair level of awareness, while (40.1%) of them recorded a good level, and only (2.4%) exhibited a waek level of awareness. Furthermore, the data revealed notable gender and grade-level differences in psychosocial awareness. Females exhibited a higher level of awareness (51.5%) compared to males. Additionally, students in the 10-grade showed a relatively higher rate of good psychosocial awareness (44.9%). It is necessary to understand the demographic factors in shaping awareness of the effects of Internet addiction, which helps in developing targeted intervention strategies to enhance awareness and improve students' control behaviors.

Grade-Level Differences in the Profiles of Substance Use and Behavioral Health Problems: A Multi-Group Latent Class Analysis.

We investigated associations between polysubstance use and behavioral problems among adolescents. Because substance use becomes more developmentally normative with age, we examined whether polysubstance use was less likely to co-occur with behavioral problems among older (vs. younger) adolescents. Using data from a nationally representative survey of US high school students, we compared the association between polysubstance use (i.e., use of alcohol, cannabis, tobacco/nicotine, and illicit drugs) and behavioral problems (i.e., suicide attempts, depressive symptoms, poor school performance, and sexual risk behaviors) by grade level. We conducted latent class analysis (LCA) to characterize patterns of polysubstance use, and multi-group LCA to estimate invariance by grade. Among the three latent classes that emerged, classes were distinguished by having low, moderate, and high probabilities for behavior problems and use of substances. Class I comprised 52% of the sample, whereas classes II and III comprised 35% and 12% of the sample, respectively. The multi-group LCA showed that younger adolescents had a higher relative probability of co-occurring problem behaviors and polysubstance use. Findings may be helpful in targeting screening and prevention efforts of high school students by grade. Specifically, our results provide evidence that associations between behavioral problems and alcohol/drug use are weaker in later high school grades, suggesting that substance use may not be a weaker marker of behavioral problems for students in higher grades.

Classroom social hierarchy and associations between children's behavioral control and peer relationships

Our study investigated concurrent associations between classroom-level social hierarchy and preschool to third-grade children's friendship and victimization. We considered its moderating role in the associations between children's behavioral control and their friendship and victimization, and explored grade level differences. We conducted three parallel sets of analyses using three operationalizations of classroom social hierarchy: social impact, peer liking, and social preference. Results revealed the three operationalizations of classroom social hierarchy were positively associated with victimization but not friendship. In hierarchical classrooms (operationalized as social preference), children with higher behavioral control had more friends and experienced less victimization (though random slope was nonsignificant) than children with lower behavioral control. In less hierarchical classrooms, behavioral control was unrelated to friendship and victimization. Analyses using social impact or peer liking did not show significant interactions. Associations were consistent across grade levels. Findings underscore the roles of classroom social hierarchy in young children's peer relationships.

Aggression-Victimization in Middle-Low Income Students in Turkey: Empathy Level, Gender, and Grade Level Differences.

This article aimed to analyze aggression-victimization differentiation in middle-school students by empathy level, gender, and grade level. A total of 260 students living in a middle-low-socioeconomic region of Ankara, Turkey, participated in the study (mean age = 12.89, standard deviation = 0.96). Results indicated that the students were more likely to be victims of violent behaviors rather than being aggressors. We found a high probability that victims could become aggressors or vice versa. There were no significant differences between empathy and victimization-aggression. Besides, the results revealed that boys were more prone to being victims and aggressors, especially concerning physical-verbal aggression and harming properties. However, girls were more likely to be victims of isolation and-to a lesser extent-verbal aggression. We discussed these results in light of literature.

Assessing the Prevalence of School Burnout in German High Schools: Psychometric Properties, Gender Differences, and Cut-Off Criteria.

School-related stress and burnout can have serious consequences for students' well-being and academic outcomes. However, there are few studies that assess the prevalence of school burnout, especially in Germany. The present study aims to determine the percentage of N = 1117 high school students who are likely to suffer from school burnout-also with regard to differences in gender and grade level. For this purpose, two different cut-off criteria are compared. Prior to this, the psychometric quality of the MBI-SuS adapted to the school context is examined. The validity and reliability of the three-factor MBI-SuS could be confirmed. Scalar measurement invariance was found for grade level but only partially for gender. The overall prevalence of school burnout of 20.9% found with the common cut-off criterion fits international prevalences, whereas the prevalence of 4.6% (determined with our recommended content-related cut-off criterion) is in line with observations from clinical practice. Depending on the cut-off value, girls suffer slightly more from school burnout, but no differences were found with respect to grade level. Results indicate that a substantial proportion of students are at risk for school burnout, highlighting the importance of prevention and intervention. Criteria for cut-off values should be applied with caution.

Japanese cultural adaptation and validation of the social emotional health survey-secondary for junior high school students

The Social Emotional Health Survey–Secondary (SEHS-S) assesses adolescents’ psychological dispositions associated with positive psychosocial development. The present study extended SEHS–S research by validating the SEHS-S with a nonwestern sample of Japanese junior high school students (Grades 7–9; N = 1,181) and investigating sex and grade level difference in Covitality and four domains of positive psychological dispositions (Belief-in-Self, Belief-in-Others, Emotional Competence, and Engaged Living). The confirmatory factor analyses supported the internal validity of the SEHS-S with a second-order model. Higher Covitality scores predicted higher life satisfaction, school connectedness, and prosocial behavior and lower emotional symptoms, conduct problems, inattention/hyperactivity, and peer problems, evidence of concurrent validity. Analyses supported the factorial invariance for different sex and grade level. Females reported higher Belief-in-Others and Emotional Competence and lower Belief-in-Self and Engaged Living than males. Grade 9 students reported higher Covitality, Belief-in-Self, Emotional Competence, and Belief-in-Others than Grade 8 students. These results support expanding the use of the SEHS–S as a universal wellness screener in Japanese junior high schools to identify the social–emotional strengths of all students. Further study needs to establish how to use the SEHS–S most effectively with Japanese junior high school students in a culturally sensitive manner.

A Study on Exploring the Influence of Teachers’ Interactive Behavior on Teaching Quality of English Classroom in Colleges and Universities by Combining Neural Network Prediction Models

Abstract English is one of the essential contents in the higher education system, and the innovative research of English teaching has become a research hotspot in the academic world. This paper introduces the neural network model to the research of English classrooms in colleges and universities and constructs a neural network prediction model based on teacher-student interaction behavior. It is used to identify, classify, and predict the behavior of teacher-student interactions. Further, explores the impact of teacher-student interaction on student behavior and its quality on college English teaching. The neural network model in this paper achieves optimal performance in the long-term prediction of teacher-student interaction behavior, and the overall short-term prediction accuracy significantly exceeds that of other prediction models. The differences in grade level, gender, and number of lecturers were all significant for the quality of English classroom teaching in colleges and universities. There was a significant correlation between teacher-student interaction behaviors (classroom cooperation, classroom games, classroom communication, and situational interpretation) and English teaching quality (English achievement, classroom participation, and learning interest). Teacher-student interaction behaviors significantly improve English classroom teaching quality and predict teaching quality by up to 45.24% of the explained variance. Classroom cooperation is the primary factor in positive classroom interaction behavior between teachers and students.

Chemistry Motivation of High School Students in Indonesia: Grade Level and Gender Differences

Chemistry motivation is one of the research topics that continues to grow today. This study aims to explore the chemistry learning motivation of high school students in Indonesia with a focus on differences based on gender and student grade. The research method used was a cross-sectional survey using an adapted questionnaire from the Chemistry Motivation Questionnaire II (CMQ II). The research sample consisted of 753 high school students from 9 schools in Yogyakarta and Bengkulu. The results of the validity and reliability analysis of the instrument showed that the CMQ II questionnaire used in this study was valid and reliable. The five dimensions of chemistry learning motivation measured through 25 question items are intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, self-determination, career motivation, and grade motivation. The two-way ANOVA test was used to analyze significant differences in students' chemistry learning motivation based on gender and grade between populations. The results of quantitative data analysis also show that the interaction between gender and class has a significant difference with a significance level of 0.003, which means that there is a significant difference in students' chemistry motivation based on gender and class.

Classroom Emotional Climate and School Burnout in Secondary School Students: A Hierarchical Regression Model

This study aims to examine the relationship between gender, grade level, classroom emotional climate and school burnout levels of secondary school students. Using a correlational research design, data were collected by random sampling method in this study. The study included a sample of 404 students enrolled in secondary schools located in Batman city, Turkey. Personal information form, Classroom Emotional Climate Scale and Elementary School Student Burnout Scale for Grades 6-8 were used as data collection tools. Descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation coefficient and hierarchical regression analyses were used to analyse the data. The findings showed that there were significant negative correlations between the positive classroom emotional climate and school burnout and significant positive correlations between the negative classroom emotional climate and school burnout. Also, the findings obtained from the hierarchical regression analysis revealed that both positive and negative classroom emotional climate significantly predicted school burnout even after controlling for the potential effects of gender and grade level. These results suggest that interventions that focus on increasing the positive classroom emotional climate and simultaneously reducing the negative classroom emotional climate may effectively reduce school burnout among adolescents despite gender and grade level differences.

Evaluation of Lac and NGAL on the Condition and Prognosis of Patients with Diquat Poisoning.

This study aims to explore the evaluation of lactic acid (Lac) and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) on the condition and prognosis of patients with diquat (DQ) poisoning. A total of 79 cases of DQ poisoning treated in one hospital from January 2019 through February 2023 were included: 10 cases of mild poisoning, 49 cases of moderate to severe poisoning, and 20 cases of fulminant poisoning. According to the Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes-acute kidney injury (KDIGO-AKI) criteria, the patients were divided into 60 cases in the AKI group and 19 cases in the non-acute kidney injury (NAKI) group. According to the AKI diagnostic indicators, AKI patients were divided into Grade I, Grade II, and Grade III. According to prognosis, the patients were divided into survivor group and non-survivor group. During the same period, 30 healthy subjects were selected as the healthy group. The changes of blood Lac, NGAL, cystatin C (CysC), and serum creatinine (Scr) levels of patients were detected, the 28-day survival of patients was recorded, and the correlation between blood Lac, NGAL levels, and renal injury grade in patients with AKI caused by DQ poisoning was analyzed. The receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve was used to evaluate the predictive value and prognostic value of Lac, NGAL, and their combination in patients with AKI caused by DQ poisoning. There were significant differences in AKI grade, Lac, NGAL, CysC, and Scr levels among different degrees of poisoning groups (P < .05). There were significant differences in the levels of Lac, NGAL, CysC, and Scr among patients with different AKI grades (P < .05). The levels of Lac, NGAL, CysC, and Scr in the survivor group were significantly lower than those in the non-survivor group (P < .05). The blood Lac and NGAL levels were positively correlated with AKI grades in patients with DQ poisoning (r = 0.752, 0.836; P = .000, .000). The combined detection of blood Lac and NGAL had higher predictive value for AKI and assessed value for death in DQ poisoning than either of them alone. The combined detection of Lac and NGAL have a certain clinical value in AKI grading and evaluating AKI prognosis caused by DQ poisoning.

ONLINE-BASED SCIENCE PROJECT LEARNING AS AN ELECTIVE INSTRUCTING MODEL TO IMPROVE THE COLLABORATIVE SKILLS OF ELEMENTARY STUDENTS

In the era of Intelligent Society 5.0, collaborative skills, which can be defined as the ability to work effectively with others to achieve common goals, are essential competencies for students to thrive. Therefore, this study aims to explore the effectiveness of Online-based Science Project Learning (SPL) as a substitute instructional model for fostering collaborative skills among elementary school students. The study participants consisted of 75 elementary school fifth-grade students, distributed across three classes in Muhammadiyah Islamic Elementary School, Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. It is important to comprehend that this examination was a replica of a preliminary test, and was conducted following the same methodology without the inclusion of a control group. The study design utilized a single-group approach, incorporating both a pretest and a posttest assessment. Furthermore, data analysis was conducted through paired t-test, n-gain calculation, and ANOVA using IBM SPSS version 25. The obtained results showed a statistically significant increase in the collective proficiency score of the observed students, as assessed at a 5% alpha level, after their engagement with the online-based Science Project Learning (SPL) model. Additionally, the average n-gains for the three grades were high, with no grade-level differences, and over 90% of the students responded positively to the online-based SPL Model teaching method. Based on these findings, it was concluded that online-based SPL models improved the collaborative work skills of the observed students. This study has several implications. First, it enhances the understanding of 21st-century life skills and abilities among elementary school teachers in Indonesia. Second, it suggests the potential for expanding the scope of the subject matter. Third, it underscores the importance of government collaborations in studies that prioritize the development of 4C skills, particularly collaboration, among students. Moreover, the study also emphasizes the necessity of online-based Science Project Learning (SPL) for scholars interested in remote learning, with a focus on examining the collaborative abilities and science learning outcomes of elementary students in virtual learning environments.

Bullied, anxious and skipping school? the interplay of school bullying, school anxiety and school absenteeism considering gender and grade level

IntroductionThe topics of bullying, school anxiety and school absenteeism are of steady interest for the scientific community in recent decades. However, it seems surprising that investigations into the combination of these constructs are rare, especially considering their interconnectedness. Due to the lack of joint investigation of these factors, it is hardly possible to compare results of these related, yet distinct factors across other studies, let alone the predictive power of specific factors. The goal of the current study is to investigate how bullying, school anxiety and school absenteeism are related, considering the variables gender and grade level.MethodsFor this purpose,N= 195 secondary school children in the 7th–9th grades in northern Germany were surveyedviaself-report questionnaires and additionally collecting their school records. We present complex descriptive analyses with scales and subscales of bullying, anxiety and absenteeism. Further, a structural equation modelling (SEM) approach is utilized to discover the interconnectedness of the constructs.ResultsOn the one hand, the descriptive statistics show significant gender and grade level differences regarding bullying and anxiety. On the other hand, the SEM reveals that high values on the bullying victim scale are accompanied by significantly higher school displeasure (anxiety). School displeasure—as well as high bullying offender values—are associated with significantly more days of absence from school.DiscussionWe discuss how school environment improvement through specific interventions such as the cognitive-behavioral approach, could aid to ameliorate this issue.

The development of high school students’ statistical literacy across grade level

The capacity to interrogate data with critical thinking is a strong predictor of statistical literacy (SL). This data interrogation, from the data consumers’ perspective, incorporates four complex response skills: interpreting, communicating, evaluating, and decision-making, and those skills are strongly supported by students’ appreciation of three interrelated knowledge components (text and context, representation, and statistical-mathematical knowledge). Due to the need to be critical data-information readers, students’ SL should develop during their formal schooling. The aim of this paper was to investigate differences in SL between Indonesian year 9 and year 12 students and between female and male students. The same test was administered to 48 year 9 students (50% females) and 48 year 12 students (50% females) from 16 different schools in Indonesia. Findings revealed that the highest percentage of year 9 and 12 students demonstrated evidence of consistent but non-critical thinking (level 4), suggesting that they exhibited their statistical knowledge but not in critical ways. There were 42% of year 9 students showing limited statistical thinking (levels 1 to 3) compared to 17% of year 12 students. Furthermore, while there were no significant gender differences in students’ SL and its all skills, the study shows significant grade level differences in overall SL as well as in its skills except interpreting. Implications of this study include the development of a framework that provides a coherent assessment of students’ SL from a data consumers’ perspective, along with suggestions for classroom teaching.

Persepsi Guru Dalam Pembelajaran Online Pada Masa Pandemi Covid-19 Di Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Mathlaul Anwar Bogor

Learning and learning in principle can be done anywhere and anytime, even if there is a distance between the teacher and students. Online learning is carried out because of a situation that encourages and supports distance learning through computer networks or the internet. Perceptions, perspectives, opinions and strategies carried out by a teacher in online learning are not always the same. This study uses research methods and procedures with a qualitative descriptive approach. Collecting data through observation, interviews and documentation. The type of qualitative descriptive research used in this study was intended to obtain information about teacher perceptions in the implementation of online learning during the pandemic. The results of research in online learning at Madrasah Ibtidaiyah Mathlaul Anwar Tegal Waru Ciampea Bogor, are; 1) The teacher's perception in the implementation of online learning is going well. Differences in grade level or student age, affect the implementation of online learning. The WhatsApp application is quite helpful, and easy to use, not much internet quota is used and efficient for delivering learning materials; 2) The obstacle or obstacle is that there are still low-grade students who cannot read, do not have mobile phones, limited internet quota, and parents are busy working. Teachers have difficulty measuring students' abilities. Parents who are less tech-savvy, internet signal is difficult. Parents must understand technology and have time to guide their children

Dimensions of Parenting and Children’s Bullying Victimization: A Look at the Racial/Ethnic and Grade Level Differences

The associations between the various dimensions of parenting and adolescent bullying have been widely studied, but it is unclear whether these associations vary by race/ethnicity and grade. The current study utilized the Health Behavior in School-Aged Children data in the United States for the investigation. The findings show that supportive parenting and permissive parenting were negatively associated with bullying victimization. However, controlling parenting and neglectful parenting were positively associated with bullying victimization. The results further revealed that the dimensions of parenting were similarly associated with bullying victimization across racial/ethnic groups. Parenting was also similarly associated with bullying victimization for both middle and high school students, except for supportive parenting, where middle school students with more parental support reported less bullying victimization. The implications of the findings are discussed.