GPS Collar Data Research Articles

Towards robust corridors: a validation framework to improve corridor modeling

ContextEcological corridors are one of the most recommended ways to mitigate biodiversity loss. With growing recognition of corridor importance, corridor modeling lags others in the development of robust, quantitative validation methods.ObjectiveWe propose a post-hoc corridor validation framework, considering the range of methods across data needs and statistical intensity. We demonstrate the importance of post-hoc corridor validation by testing several validation methods on different corridor model outputs.MethodsWe used three different transformations on a Florida black bear (Ursus americanus floidanus) habitat suitability model to create different resistance grids, independent GPS collar data from a case study population, and Circuitscape to create corridor models. We used several validation methods, including a novel method, to compare resulting corridors.ResultsTransformed resistance grids were all correlated, yet differing validation and resistance grids resulted in different recommended corridors. The use of one resistance surface and one validation type can result in the selection of inefficient or ineffective corridors. At a minimum, modelers should determine what proportion of an independent population falls within resulting corridors and should move towards more robust, documented methods as resources allow. The use of multiple validation methods can ensure greater confidence of modeling results.ConclusionsWe encourage the use and further development of the framework presented here to drive the corridor modeling field towards more effective corridor creation and improved conservation outcomes. If validation methods are not improved, the ecological and economic cost of poor corridor science will continue to increase with increasing biodiversity loss.

Impacts of management practices on habitat selection during juvenile mountain lion dispersal.

Dispersal is a complex series of movements before an individual establishes a home range. Animals must travel and forage in unfamiliar landscapes that include anthropogenic risks such as road crossings, harvest, and urban landscapes. We compare dispersal behavior of juvenile mountain lions (Puma concolor) from two geographically distinct populations in California and Nevada, USA. These two sites are ecologically similar but have different management practices; hunting is permitted in Nevada, whereas mountain lions are protected in California. We used GPS-collar data and net-squared displacement analysis to identify three dispersal states: exploratory, departure, and transient home range. We then compared each dispersal state of the two mountain lion populations using an integrated step selection analysis (iSSA). The model included explanatory variables hypothesized to influence one or more dispersal states, including distance to forest, shrub, water, hay and crop, developed lands, and four-wheel drive roads, as well as elevation and terrain ruggedness. Results revealed consistent habitat selection between sites across most landscape variables, with one notable exception: anthropogenic covariates, including distance to developed land, distance to hay and crop, and distance to four-wheeled drive roads, were only statistically significant on modeled habitat selection during dispersal in the population subject to hunting (i.e., Nevada). Results suggest that hunting (pursuit with hounds resulting in harvest) and non-lethal pursuit (pursuit with hounds but no harvest allowed) increase avoidance of anthropogenic landscapes during dispersal for juvenile mountain lions. By comparing populations, we provided valuable insights into the role of management in shaping dispersal behavior.

Movement-driven modelling reveals new patterns in disease transmission networks.

Interspecific interactions are highly relevant in the potential transmission of shared pathogens in multi-host systems. In recent decades, several technologies have been developed to study pathogen transmission, such as proximity loggers, GPS tracking devices and/or camera traps. Despite the diversity of methods aimed at detecting contacts, the analysis of transmission risk is often reduced to contact rates and the probability of transmission given the contact. However, the latter process is continuous over time and unique for each contact, and is influenced by the characteristics of the contact and the pathogen's relationship with both the host and the environment. Our objective was to assess whether a more comprehensive approach, using a movement-based model which assigns a unique transmission risk to each contact by decomposing transmission into contact formation, contact duration and host characteristics, could reveal disease transmission dynamics that are not detected with more traditional approaches. The model was built from GPS-collar data from two management systems in Spain where animal tuberculosis (TB) circulates: a national park with extensively reared endemic cattle, and an area with extensive free-range pigs and cattle farms. In addition, we evaluated the effect of the GPS device fix rate on the performance of the model. Different transmission dynamics were identified between both management systems. Considering the specific conditions under which each contact occurs (i.e. whether the contact is direct or indirect, its duration, the hosts characteristics, the environmental conditions, etc.) resulted in the identification of different transmission dynamics compared to using only contact rates. We found that fix intervals greater than 30 min in the GPS tracking data resulted in missed interactions, and intervals greater than 2 h may be insufficient for epidemiological purposes. Our study shows that neglecting the conditions under which each contact occurs may result in a misidentification of the real role of each species in disease transmission. This study describes a clear and repeatable framework to study pathogen transmission from GPS data and provides further insights to understand how TB is maintained in multi-host systems in Mediterranean environments.

Pursuit and escape drive fine-scale movement variation during migration in a temperate alpine ungulate

Climate change reduces snowpack, advances snowmelt phenology, drives summer warming, alters growing season precipitation regimes, and consequently modifies vegetation phenology in mountain systems. Elevational migrants track spatial variation in seasonal plant growth by moving between ranges at different elevations during spring, so climate-driven vegetation change may disrupt historic benefits of migration. Elevational migrants can furthermore cope with short-term environmental variability by undertaking brief vertical movements to refugia when sudden adverse conditions arise. We uncover drivers of fine-scale vertical movement variation during upland migration in an endangered alpine specialist, Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis sierrae) using a 20-year study of GPS collar data collected from 311 unique individuals. We used integrated step-selection analysis to determine factors that promote vertical movements and drive selection of destinations following vertical movements. Our results reveal that relatively high temperatures consistently drive uphill movements, while precipitation likely drives downhill movements. Furthermore, bighorn select destinations at their peak annual biomass and maximal time since snowmelt. These results indicate that although Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep seek out foraging opportunities related to landscape phenology, they compensate for short-term environmental stressors by undertaking brief up- and downslope vertical movements. Migrants may therefore be impacted by future warming and increased storm frequency or intensity, with shifts in annual migration timing, and fine-scale vertical movement responses to environmental variability.

Proactive cursorial and ambush predation risk avoidance in four African herbivore species.

Most herbivores must balance demands to meet nutritional requirements, maintain stable thermoregulation and avoid predation. Species-specific predator and prey characteristics determine the ability of prey to avoid predation and the ability of predators to maximize hunting success. Using GPS collar data from African wild dogs, lions, impala, tsessebes, wildebeest and zebra in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, we studied proactive predation risk avoidance by herbivores. We considered predator activity level in relation to prey movement, predator and prey habitat selection, and preferential use of areas by prey. We compared herbivore behaviour to lion and wild dog activity patterns and determined the effect of seasonal resource availability and prey body mass on anti-predator behaviour. Herbivore movement patterns were more strongly correlated with lion than wild dog activity. Habitat selection by predators was not activity level dependent and, while prey and predators differed to some extent in their habitat selection, there were also overlaps, probably caused by predators seeking habitats with high prey abundance. Areas favoured by lions were used by herbivores more when lions were less active, whereas wild dog activity level was not correlated with prey use. Prey body mass was not a strong predictor of the strength of proactive predation avoidance behaviour. Herbivores showed stronger anti-predator behaviours during the rainy season when resources were abundant. Reducing movement when top predators are most active and avoiding areas with a high likelihood of predator use during the same periods appear to be common strategies to minimize predation risk. Such valuable insights into predator-prey dynamics are only possible when using similar data from multiple sympatric species of predator and prey, an approach that should become more prevalent given the ongoing integration of technological methods into ecological studies.

Behavioral trade-offs and multitasking by elk in relation to predation risk from Mexican gray wolves.

Predator non-consumptive effects (NCE) can alter prey foraging time and habitat use, potentially reducing fitness. Prey can mitigate NCEs by increasing vigilance, chewing-vigilance synchronization, and spatiotemporal avoidance of predators. We quantified the relationship between Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) predation risk and elk (Cervus canadensis) behavior. We conducted behavioral observations on adult female elk and developed predation risk indices using GPS collar data from Mexican wolves, locations of elk killed by wolves, and landscape covariates. We compared a priori models to determine the best predictors of adult female behavior and multitasking. Metrics that quantified both spatial and temporal predation risk were the most predictive. Vigilance was positively associated with increased predation risk. The effect of predation risk on foraging and resting differed across diurnal periods. During midday when wolf activity was lower, the probability of foraging increased while resting decreased in high-risk areas. During crepuscular periods when elk and wolves were most active, increased predation risk was associated with increased vigilance and slight decreases in foraging. Our results suggest elk are temporally avoiding predation risk from Mexican wolves by trading resting for foraging, a trade-off often not evaluated in behavioral studies. Probability of multitasking depended on canopy openness and an interaction between maternal period and predation risk; multitasking decreased prior to parturition and increased post parturition in high-risk areas. Openness was inversely related to multitasking. These results suggest adult female elk are altering the type of vigilance used depending on resource availability/quality, current energetic needs, and predation risk. Our results highlight potentially important, but often-excluded behaviors and trade-offs prey species may use to reduce the indirect effects of predation and contribute additional context to our understanding of predator-prey dynamics.

Chronic wasting disease alters the movement behavior and habitat use of mule deer during clinical stages of infection.

Integrating host movement and pathogen data is a central issue in wildlife disease ecology that will allow for a better understanding of disease transmission. We examined how adult female mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) responded behaviorally to infection with chronic wasting disease (CWD). We compared movement and habitat use of CWD-infected deer (n = 18) to those that succumbed to starvation (and were CWD-negative by ELISA and IHC; n = 8) and others in which CWD was not detected (n = 111, including animals that survived the duration of the study) using GPS collar data from two distinct populations collared in central Wyoming, USA during 2018-2022. CWD and predation were the leading causes of mortality during our study (32/91 deaths attributed to CWD and 27/91 deaths attributed to predation). Deer infected with CWD moved slower and used lower elevation areas closer to rivers in the months preceding death compared with uninfected deer that did not succumb to starvation. Although CWD-infected deer and those that died of starvation moved at similar speeds during the final months of life, CWD-infected deer used areas closer to streams with less herbaceous biomass than starved deer. These behavioral differences may allow for the development of predictive models of disease status from movement data, which will be useful to supplement field and laboratory diagnostics or when mortalities cannot be quickly retrieved to assess cause-specific mortality. Furthermore, identifying individuals who are sick before predation events could help to assess the extent to which disease mortality is compensatory with predation. Finally, infected animals began to slow down around 4 months prior to death from CWD. Our approach for detecting the timing of infection-induced shifts in movement behavior may be useful in application to other disease systems to better understand the response of wildlife to infectious disease.

Spatial overlap of gray wolves and ungulate prey changes seasonally corresponding to prey migration

BackgroundPrey are more vulnerable during migration due to decreased familiarity with their surroundings and spatially concentrated movements. Predators may respond to increased prey vulnerability by shifting their ranges to match prey. Moose (Alces alces) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are primary gray wolf (Canis lupus) prey and important subsistence species for Indigenous communities. We hypothesized wolves would increase use of ungulate migration corridors during migrations and predicted wolf distributions would overlap primary available prey.MethodsWe examined seasonal gray wolf, moose, and white-tailed deer movements on and near the Grand Portage Indian Reservation, Minnesota, USA. We analyzed GPS collar data during 2012–2021 using Brownian bridge movement models (BBMM) in Migration Mapper and mechanistic range shift analysis (MRSA) to estimate individual- and population-level occurrence distributions and determine the status and timing of range shifts. We estimated proportional overlap of wolf distributions with moose and deer distributions and tested for differences among seasons, prey populations, and wolf sex and pack affiliations.ResultsWe identified a single migration corridor through which white-tailed deer synchronously departed in April and returned in October–November. Gray wolf distributions overlapped the deer migration corridor similarly year-round, but wolves altered within-range distributions seasonally corresponding to prey distributions. Seasonal wolf distributions had the greatest overlap with deer during fall migration (10 October–28 November) and greatest overlap with moose during summer (3 May–9 October).ConclusionsGray wolves did not increase their use of the white-tailed deer migration corridor but altered distributions within their territories in response to seasonal prey distributions. Greater overlap of wolves and white-tailed deer in fall may be due to greater predation success facilitated by asynchronous deer migration movements. Greater summer overlap between wolves and moose may be linked to moose calf vulnerability, American beaver (Castor canadensis) co-occurrence, and reduced deer abundance associated with migration. Our results suggest increases in predation pressure on deer in fall and moose in summer, which can inform Indigenous conservation efforts. We observed seasonal plasticity of wolf distributions suggestive of prey switching; that wolves did not exhibit migratory coupling was likely due to spatial constraints resulting from territoriality.

Mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) resource selection: trade-offs between forage and predation risk

Ungulates commonly select habitat with higher forage biomass and or nutritional quality to improve body condition and fitness. However, predation risk can alter ungulate habitat selection and foraging behavior and may affect their nutritional condition. Ungulates often choose areas with lower predation risk, sometimes sacrificing higher quality forage. This forage–predation risk trade-off can be important for life history strategies and influences individual nutritional condition and population vital rates. We used GPS collar data from adult female mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) to model mule deer habitat selection in relation to forage conditions, stalking cover and predation risk from mountain lions to determine if a forage-predation risk trade-off existed for mule deer in central New Mexico. We also examined mountain lion kill sites and mule deer foraging locations to assess trade-offs at a finer scale. Forage biomass and protein content were inversely correlated with horizontal visibility, hence associated with higher stalking cover for mountain lions, suggesting a forage-predation risk trade-off for mule deer. Mule deer habitat selection was influenced by forage biomass and protein content at the landscape and within home range spatial scales, with forage protein being related to habitat selection during spring and summer and forage biomass during winter. However, mule deer selection for areas with better foraging conditions was constrained by landscape-scale encounter risk for mountain lions, such that increasing encounter risk was associated with diminished selection for areas with better foraging conditions. Mule deer also selected for areas with higher visibility when mountain lion predation risk was higher. Mountain lion kill sites were best explained by decreasing horizontal visibility and available forage protein, suggesting that deer may be selecting for forage quality at the cost of predation risk. A site was 1.5 times more likely to be a kill site with each 1-meter decrease in visibility (i.e., increased stalking cover). Mule deer selection of foraging sites was related to increased forage biomass, further supporting the potential for a trade-off scenario. Mule deer utilized spatio-temporal strategies and risk-conditional behavior to reduce predation risk, and at times selected suboptimal foraging areas with lower predation risk.

Social-ecological predictors of spotted hyena navigation through a shared landscape.

Human-wildlife interactions are increasing in severity due to climate change and proliferating urbanization. Regions where human infrastructure and activity are rapidly densifying or newly appearing constitute novel environments in which wildlife must learn to coexist with people, thereby serving as ideal case studies with which to infer future human-wildlife interactions in shared landscapes. As a widely reviled and behaviorally plastic apex predator, the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) is a model species for understanding how large carnivores navigate these human-caused 'landscapes of fear' in a changing world. Using high-resolution GPS collar data, we applied resource selection functions and step selection functions to assess spotted hyena landscape navigation and fine-scale movement decisions in relation to social-ecological features in a rapidly developing region comprising two protected areas: Lake Nakuru National Park and Soysambu Conservancy, Kenya. We then used camera trap imagery and Barrier Behavior Analysis (BaBA) to further examine hyena interactions with barriers. Our results show that environmental factors, linear infrastructure, human-carnivore conflict hotspots, and human tolerance were all important predictors for landscape-scale resource selection by hyenas, while human experience elements were less important for fine-scale hyena movement decisions. Hyena selection for these characteristics also changed seasonally and across land management types. Camera traps documented an exceptionally high number of individual spotted hyenas (234) approaching the national park fence at 16 sites during the study period, and BaBA results suggested that hyenas perceive protected area boundaries' semi-permeable electric fences as risky but may cross them out of necessity. Our findings highlight that the ability of carnivores to flexibly respond within human-caused landscapes of fear may be expressed differently depending on context, scale, and climatic factors. These results also point to the need to incorporate societal factors into multiscale analyses of wildlife movement to effectively plan for human-wildlife coexistence.

Highway underpasses offer little fragmentation relief for desert bighorn sheep near Mojave National Preserve, CA

To improve wildlife connectivity across the U.S., managers need to identify and prioritize movement barriers in need of mitigation. Roadway barriers may be semi-permeable and allow some movement either at-grade or via non-wildlife underpasses, but permeability can depend on species-specific behaviors and underpass characteristics. We used a combination of trail cameras and GPS collars to monitor desert bighorn (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) movement near highways and use of non-wildlife underpasses along I-15 and I-40 near Mojave National Preserve, CA. After year 1, we installed guzzlers near target underpasses in a before-after-control-impact (BACI) framework to assess changes in desert bighorn detection over 2 years post-installation. GPS collar data confirmed that desert bighorn moved close enough to 10 of 11 focal underpasses to easily access and use these structures to cross I-15 and I-40. Trail cameras at five sites recorded desert bighorn using habitat very near underpasses and even resting in a culvert tunnel, but no data indicated desert bighorn used underpasses or culverts to cross either highway. Meanwhile, species including coyote (Canis latrans), bobcat (Lynx rufus), and feral burro (Equus asinus) regularly used monitored underpasses. Adding a novel water resource did not significantly increase desert bighorn detection rate on underpass cameras at impact sites relative to control sites after 2 years, and no images suggested bighorn used the installed guzzlers. Patterns of desert bighorn habitat use in the region and lack of observed highway crossings during the study indicate generally low permeability of I-15 and I-40 for this species and a mismatch between non-wildlife underpass locations, design, and desert bighorn behavior.

A follow‐up assessment of wildlife‐permeable fences used in the reintroduction of bison

Fences are an important tool for anchoring reintroduced species to a target area, and there is a need to understand their effect on other wildlife species. However, little is understood about the response of wildlife to newly constructed fences over time. We evaluated fences used in the reintroduction of plains bison Bison bison to Banff National Park, Canada. These fences were designed to contain reintroduced bison while allowing for the free passage of other wildlife. In 2020, we provided an assessment of the permeability of several fence designs. Here, we investigated longer‐term fence effects and addressed the emerging question of whether wildlife adapt their behaviours to navigate fences more effectively over time. We used an expanded array of remote cameras and a before‐after‐control‐impact design to evaluate changes in detection probability for 12 species. Next, we tested for changes in crossing rates and travel speeds of migratory elk Cervus canadensis using 22 years of GPS collar data. Finally, we examined whether species detections or elk movements changed over time after fences were constructed. Changes in detection probability near fences were inconsistent between species. Elk fence crossing rates decreased after fence construction, and travel speeds slowed by a negligible amount. However, these effects were temporary – wildlife learned to cross fences more efficiently over time. Elk movement metrics followed a non‐linear pattern after the appearance of fences and began returning to pre‐fence states after approximately two years. Our study provides new information on the implementation of fences for conservation objectives while minimizing impacts on sympatric wildlife.

Habitat suitability assessment for tule elk in the San Francisco Bay and Monterey Bay areas

While California’s statewide tule elk (Cervus canadensis nannodes) population has recovered from two or three individual survivors in the late 19th century, the subspecies exists today in numerous widely disjunct populations, leaving vast areas of the species’ former range uninhabited. Large unoccupied areas of historic tule elk range include the Santa Cruz Mountains and the northern Diablo and northern Santa Lucia ranges. Natural range expansion by existing populations into these areas is blocked by major highways and urban development; although, before considering tule elk translocations, it is necessary to assess the habitat suitability there. To this end, we fit a resource selection function (RSF) using generalized linear mixed models to GPS collar data collected from nearby radio collared tule elk and used several environmental GIS layers to capture important habitat characteristics. We fit the RSF in a habitat use versus availability framework with only linear and quadratic terms and used stepwise model selection ranked by AICc to maximize its generalizability, enabling transferability to our unoccupied study area. We also used k-fold cross validation to evaluate our RSF and found it predicted habitat within the San Luis Reservoir herd well. The fit habitat relationships mostly followed expectations based on tule elk ecology, including positive responses to herbaceous vegetation cover and waterbody proximity, and negative responses to high tree cover and high puma habitat suitability. Our RSF accurately predicted currently occupied elk habitat as suitable and found well over 500,000 ha (2,000 mi2) of suitable but unoccupied habitat throughout the northern Diablo Range, the inland and coastal sides of the Santa Cruz Mountains, and the northern Santa Lucia Range. Assuming translocations, and construction and improvement of highway wildlife crossings, our results support the potential for re-establishing tule elk in these regions, which are more coastal and mesic than the species’ current habitat in the central Diablo and northern Gabilan ranges.

Variation of weekly home range characteristics of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Bentang Seblat, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia

Abstract. Ningrum IK, Santosa Y, Setiawan Y. 2023. Variation of weekly home range characteristics of Sumatran elephants (Elephas maximus sumatranus) in Bentang Seblat, Bengkulu Province, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 5854-5862. Bentang Seblat is one of the areas of conflict between Sumatran elephants and humans arising from space use problems because Sumatran elephants have specific preferences for habitat characteristics. This study aims to identify the characteristics of the weekly home range and analyze the relationship of weekly home range with habitat characteristics of Sumatran elephants in Bentang Seblat. GPS collar data from November 2020 until August 2022 were obtained from the Natural Resources Conservation Agency of Bengkulu-Lampung Province and habitat characteristics were obtained from Landsat 8 imagery. The data obtained were analyzed using chi-square test and Multiple Regression Analysis (MRA) with five variables: land cover, slope, distance from water sources, roads, and settlements. The results showed that the weekly home range was between 2.67 ha-239.98 ha, averaging 46.1 ha. The highest percentage of each habitat characteristic includes secondary forest (55.38%), flat slopes (59.01%), distances of 0-450 m from water sources (35.11%), distances of 0-400 m from roads (70.81%), and distances of 6-8 km from settlements (50.37%). The weekly home range is closely related to all habitat characteristics, with the highest level of relationship significance being the distance from water sources and the distance from the settlement.

A Snapshot into the Lives of Elephants: Camera Traps and Conservation in Etosha National Park, Namibia

Knowledge of elephant movement and grouping patterns in the wild is critical for their management and conservation. Much of these data come from GPS collar data and aerial surveys, which have provided invaluable information, but data from these methods are often limited to small groups or entire populations. Effective elephant management requires both generalized and localized methodologies. Here, we propose the expanded use of camera traps in research relating to elephant localized movements and grouping patterns as an additional tool for elephant conservation management. In this study, we use a battery-powered camera trap to provide daily high-resolution data of African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) grouping patterns over the course of an entire year. We present findings on the seasonal and diurnal grouping patterns of elephants at a waterhole in the northeast corner of Etosha National Park from July 2016 to June 2017. The frequency of elephant occurrences varied seasonally and diurnally across all group types (solitary male, male, family, and mixed groups), while group sizes did not vary seasonally, except for male groups. Solitary males occurred relatively equally throughout the day, while male and mixed groups occurred the most midday, and family groups occurred the most in the afternoon. Additionally, we measured the reliability of research assistants when collecting group type and group size data from the camera trap images. Intra- and inter-observer reliability was excellent among and across research assistants, highlighting the potential for non-specialist observers to have greater involvement in camera trap data collection. Our results support the use of camera trap data where GPS collars and aerial surveys are not feasible and where higher-resolution data are needed for more localized management. Finally, we discuss our experience with two different types of camera traps to highlight the pros and cons of each approach.

A test of the green wave hypothesis in omnivorous brown bears across North America

Herbivorous animals tend to seek out plants at intermediate phenological states to improve energy intake while minimizing consumption of fibrous material. In some ecosystems, the timing of green‐up is heterogeneous and propagates across space in a wave‐like pattern, known as the green wave. Tracking the green wave allows individuals to prolong access to higher‐quality forage. While there is a plethora of empirical support for such behavior in herbivorous taxa, the green wave hypothesis (GWH) is nuanced based on factors such as body morphometrics and digestive capacity. Furthermore, little is known about whether other taxa, such as omnivores, track the green wave. Our objective was to assess whether the GWH can be extended to explain the movements of omnivores. Using GPS collar data from seven populations (n = 127 individuals) of brown bears Ursus arctos across their entire North American range, we first tested whether bears tracked the green wave. Using conditional resource selection functions (RSFs), we found that variation in proxies of vegetative forage quality better explained movement and habitat selection than proxies of forage biomass in over half of the bears in our study, providing evidence of green wave tracking. Second, we assess factors that explained variation in green wave tracking using linear mixed effects models. Green wave tracking in brown bears was explained by the variation in availability of green‐up within spring home ranges, and how green‐up transitioned across those home ranges. Our results demonstrate that the GWH can partially explain movement of a non‐migratory omnivorous species, extending the generality of the GWH as a broad predictor of animal space use. The green wave is another resource wave brown bears track, and our findings help predict brown bear space use, which can be used to guide conservation and habitat restoration efforts.

Conserving habitat for migratory ungulates: How wide is a migration corridor?

Abstract Conserving migratory ungulates relies on the analysis of GPS collar data and associated maps of migration corridors to inform management and policy actions. Current methods for identifying migratory corridors use complex statistical models designed to account for movement uncertainty rather than estimating the amount of space required by animals to migrate. Furthermore, such methods can complicate conservation efforts by producing highly variable corridor widths and non‐contiguous corridors that do not fully connect seasonal ranges. To remedy, we propose an intuitive line buffer approach for delineating individual migration corridors that is simple to implement and focuses on the functional corridor widths needed by migratory ungulates. By buffering a line that connects successive GPS locations, we can delineate individual migration corridors with consistent widths that are robust to variable parameters (GPS fix rate, travel speed, tortuosity) and provide contiguous connection between seasonal ranges. Using a combination of expert knowledge, simulation and 10‐min GPS collar data collected from mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), we suggest 400–600 m are reasonable estimates of functional migration corridor widths for individuals of those species. Synthesis and applications. Our line buffer approach is intended to simplify migration corridor delineation, improve transparency and encourage a broader discussion of functional corridor widths. These considerations help advance efforts to conserve habitat within migration corridors and prioritize conservation efforts within a single corridor or across multiple corridors.

Dynamic balancing of risks and rewards in a large herbivore: Further extending predator-prey concepts to road ecology.

Animal behaviour is shaped by the ability to identify risks and profitably balance the levels of risks encountered with the payoffs experienced. Anthropogenic disturbances like roads generate novel risks and opportunities that wildlife must accurately perceive and respond to. Basic concepts in predator-prey ecology are often used to understand responses of animals to roads (e.g. increased vigilance, selection for cover in their vicinity). However, prey often display complex behaviours such as modulating space use given varying risks and rewards, and it is unclear if such dynamic balancing is used by animals in the context of road crossings. We tested whether animals dynamically balance risks and rewards relative to roads using extensive field-based and GPS collar data from elk in Yoho National Park (British Columbia, Canada), where a major highway completely bisects their range during most of the year. We analysed elk behaviour by combining hidden Markov movement models with a step-selection function framework. Rewards were indexed by a dynamic map of available forage biomass, and risks were indexed by road crossings and traffic volumes. We found that elk generally selected intermediate and high forage biomass, and avoided crossing the road. Most of the time, elk modulated their behaviour given varying risks and rewards. When crossing the highway compared with not crossing, elk selected for greater forage biomass and this selection was stronger as the number of highway crossings increased. However, with traffic volume, elk only balanced foraging rewards when they crossed a single time during a travel sequence. Using a road ecology system, we empirically tested an important component of predator-prey ecology-the ability to dynamically modulate behaviour in response to varying levels of risks and rewards. Such a test articulates how decision-making processes that consider the spatiotemporal variation in risks and rewards allow animals to successfully and profitably navigate busy roads. Applying well-developed concepts in predator-prey theory helps understand how animals respond to anthropogenic disturbances and anticipate the adaptive capacity for individuals and populations to adjust to rapidly changing environments.

Spatiotemporal patterns of lion (Panthera leo) space use in ahuman–wildlifesystem

AbstractConserving large carnivores requires protecting landscape spaces that encompass all spatiotemporal scales of their movement. Large carnivores normally roam widely, but habitat loss and fragmentation can constrain their movement in ways that restrict access to resources and increase encounters with humans and potential conflict. Facilitating carnivore population coexistence with humans across landscapes requires conservation plans informed by patterns of carnivore space use, particularly at the human–wildlife interface.We sought to understand lion space use in Laikipia, Kenya. We conducted a path‐selection function analysis using GPS collar data from 16 lions to assess patterns of space use across a range of spatial scales (sedentary to home range expanses; 0, 12.5, 25 and 50 km) and temporal scales (day, dusk, night and dawn). Path‐selection results were then incorporated into space use maps.We found that most landscape features influenced path‐selection at the broadest spatial scale (50 km), representative of home range‐wide movement, thereby demonstrating a landscape‐wide human impact on lion space use. We also detected sub‐diurnal variation in lion path‐selection which revealed limited space use during daylight hours and increased space use overnight.Our results highlight that optimal support for human–lion coexistence should be temporally adaptive at sub‐diurnal scales. Furthermore, spatial approaches to lion conservation may be better generalized at broad spatial scales so that land management plans can account for home range patterns in lion space use.

Pet Monitoring System

Abstract: The statement” Technology stems from humanity” accurately portrays the modern way of life. As humans increasingly interact with physical devices and those in the real world, it has become crucial to employ a natural and intuitive methodology. Living well has become a growing demand, and asa result, raising pets in an easy way has emerged as a major concern. To address this issue, this study examines how computation, communication, and control technologies can improve human interaction with pets through the Internet of Things (IoT) technology. The IoT offers a new method of operational efficiency,and our study focuses on improving the pet care system by incorporating this technology. Our research highlights the key improvements of the pet care system by utilizing the IoT and also addresses the needs of pet owners who are out for work without any trouble. To gain a morecomprehensive understanding of animal behavior, researchers can utilize GPS collars that record the location and behaviorof animals with high accuracy and frequency. By combining GPS collar data with remotely-sensed satellite images through wireless sensor networks (WSNs), researchers can gain insight into animal-landscape interactions and environmental impact.