Gospel Text Research Articles

Living without an irrealis

Abstract An important grammatical feature that separates Old Church Slavic from the languages of the other five first-millennium CE Indo-European versions of the Gospels is the absence of a third mood, outside of the indicative and imperative, to encode irrealis contexts. For speakers of Modern English, such contexts are, with few exceptions, encoded by means of modal verbs. A particularly clear distinction may be drawn in English between purpose clauses, where no actual result is stated to have occurred (I arrived early so that I could get a seat; irrealis), and result clauses, where an actual outcome is indicated (I arrived early, so that I got a seat). Another category where a similar distinction comes into play in English is in indirect questions (I wondered how he would solve the problem) as opposed to a factual statement (I know how he solved the problem). This article will investigate the entire range of contexts where the original Greek text employs a subjunctive (or, rarely, an optative) in order to document the manner in which Old Church Slavic handles irrealis contexts, comparing this to the way such contexts are handled by the other Indo-European languages of the first millennium CE recording the Gospel text.

«Исаии ныне пророка глас...»: о необычной атрибуции ветхозаветного пророчества в древней церковной гимнографии

The article considers an unusual case of "incorrect" attribution of the words of the prophet Malachi to the prophet Isaiah on the example of two hymns of the service of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist (24 June), written by St. John of Damascus (7th – 8th centuries) and St. Kassia (9th century). According to the author, this attribution is due to the fact that the hymnographers did not directly use the text of the prophetic book, but quoted this prophecy in the transmission of Mark 1. 2. The form of the quoted Gospel text corresponded to the Alexandrian text-type of New Testament manuscripts, where the prophet Isaiah is indicated as the author of the prophecy quoted in Mark 1. 2. The following is a discussion of the possible reasons for the use by the hymnographers in question of the New Testament text instead of the Old Testament text: (1) the words of Mark 1. 2 (and the parallels in Matt 11. 10 and Luke 7. 17) may have been more familiar to Christians of that time than their Old Testament prototype; moreover (2) the Gospel restatement of the prophecy revealed its meaning, pointing to the divinity of Jesus Christ, as well as clarifying the sense of John the Baptist's ministry. The reasons for the use of Mark 1. 2 (despite the problematic character of these apostolic words because of the unusual attribution of prophetic words) could be the prominent position of this verse at the beginning of the Gospel of Mark and its connection with the proclamation there of the messianic dignity of Jesus Christ, as well as the fact that the hymnographers continued the patristic tradition of advocacy of the correctness of the words of Mark 1. 2. At the end of the article some peculiarities of the use and interpretation of the text of the Holy Scriptures in Byzantine hymnography are pointed out on the basis of the material considered. First of all, it is the use of the Old Testament words in their New Testament version, because this version of the words is better known to Christians and has already been interpreted by the apostles themselves. It is no less important that in their use and interpretation of the biblical text the hymnographers clearly followed the preceding patristic exegetical tradition, including trust in the words of the Holy Scripture.

Missional Rest: A Fusion Point Between Being and Doing

In current missiological discussions, economy is the operant lens with its focus on action, often to the neglect of being. Part of the reason for a neglect of ontology appears to be the inattention of Creation theology for theological conceptions of Christian mission. In this article, we argue that the practice of rest is a key element in the missional connection between being and doing. We ground our discussion in biblical texts marked by Creation theology, showing that God's rhythms of work and rest are the foundation of Christian missional practice. This is drawn out by close attention to Genesis 1–2, as well as key Synoptic Gospel texts on Jesus’ relationship to the Sabbath. Since these texts integrate mission with the Sabbath rhythms of rest and reflection, we argue that rest allows for greater integration of human ontology and economy into a life of participation in the Missio Dei. This has implications for shaping a richer participation of God's missional rhythms, measuring fruitfulness in mission, and contemplating longevity in ministry.

Attribution of Fragments of the 16th–18th Centuries’ Early Printed Books from the Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine: Informational Potential and Practical Experience

The publication describes various cases of attributing fragments of editions from the Vernadsky National Library of Ukraine. The attribution included the identification of extracts from the text, authentication of sheets used as flyleaves, and waste paper sheets. It is shown in the examples that the binding shops at the printing houses of Ostroh, Lviv, Kyiv, and Chernihiv actively used waste paper. The article describes cases when the attribution of editions assembled from fragments, the Vilnius Gospel in particular, became the reason for a scientific study and catalogue of the Gospels of 1575–1644 in the library collection. The attribution of fragments of several different editions allowed us to identify unknown printing variants, and to form the complete Gospel text. Printed engravings inserted into books also provide interesting material for further research. The practice of studying them has shown that sometimes they are previously unknown artistic monuments by famous engravers, for example, Hryhorii Levytskyi and Ivan Myhura. The usage of various methods of work, such as the study of the history of engravings, a comprehensive analysis of their state of preservation, the establishment of the history of the copies’ use, and the study of paper filigrees, prove that book engravings were also printed for independent distribution. In particular, we are referring to images of evangelists associated with the names of Petro Mstyslavets and Pamva Berinda. The study of printed inserts of engravings, illustrations, and texts into manuscript codices is an interesting and promising area of research

Keteladanan Yesus Kristus Berdasarkan Injil Yohanes Terhadap Kinerja Guru

This article explores the exemplary nature of Jesus Christ as depicted in the Gospel of John, with an emphasis on aspects of leadership, teaching, and wisdom that can serve as examples for educators. Through a thorough examination of the Gospel text, this article illustrates how the attitudes, behaviors, and teachings of Jesus Christ provide a foundation for exemplary leadership that influences and inspires the teaching profession.

Jesus, the Crowds, and Historical Agency

Abstract Crossley and Myles’s Jesus: A Life in Class Struggle offers an innovative and accessible reading of the movement around Jesus in terms of class struggle. The authors combine a breadth of knowledge about first-century realities, acumen in exegesis of the Gospel texts, and contemporary crowd theory to reach new conclusions regarding Jesus and his disciples, especially in his last days, and regarding the ‘failure’ of their movement. This review examines their understanding of the ‘Jesus movement’ and its relationship to the Galilean peasantry and their methodology in extrapolating from the Gospels; and proposes a more thorough Marxist theorization of the Gospels’ role in producing the ‘failure’ they describe.

THE RESURRECTION OF LAZARUS IN THE ART OF THE MIDDLE AGES: THE ART OF MIMICRY OR THE CHAMELEON PLOT

Images of the Resurrection of Lazarus in Christian art in Western Europe, from catacomb frescoes to miniatures of late Gothic books of hours, in most cases represent an interesting example of the refusal to construct an iconographic scheme by following the realities of the Gospel text. The plastic interpretation of the plot becomes a kind of “mimicry” and results from borrowing the entire composition or its elements from various alien subjects. In 1951, Emile Mâle stated that the iconographic scheme had been completely changed at least three times throughout the history of its formation. However, both Mâle himself and later researchers limit themselves to individual remarks on the origin of specific schemes and their parts. Taking into account that the complete or partial copying of one or more patterns within the framework of one composition is an important part of the work of a medieval master, enabling the researcher to trace the origins of visual citations that make up the iconographic scheme, in this text we attempt to consistently trace the possible origins of the main elements of iconographic schemes in the images of the Resurrection of Lazarus from III to XV centuries. Using the concepts of “citation”, “partial copying” and “moduli”, introduced into the dictionary of the art historian-medievalist R. Scheller, M. Muller and F. Deutscher, we will try to consistently present each scheme as a set of independent elements of heterogeneous origin with different “specific gravity”, united by a certain logic and associative series.

Новооткрит възрожденски писмен паметник с гръцко писмо от Централните Родопи

The article deals with the recently discovered Ustovski sbornik, a written monument from the Central Rhodope region. The collection was compiled and owned by Kiryak Byalkovski, a prominent figure in the Central Rhodopes. The texts included in the collection are written in the local Rhodope dialect using the Greek alphabet. In addition, they contain features of South-western Bulgarian dialects, as well as vocabulary distinctive of Church Slavonic. The collection comprises sections of Damaskin sermons and gospel texts, among others. The article presents a set of guidelines for exploring the graphical, grammatical and lexical characteristics of this manuscript as part of the Central Rhodope literary tradition of the Bulgarian National Revival period.

The Gospel Text in the Legacy of N. F. Fedorov and the Idea of Projectivity of Literature

The article discusses the features of the interpretation of the gospel text by the philosopher N. F. Fedorov. It demonstrates that for the philosopher, the Gospel is not only the “eternal book” of humanity that influenced the development of literary and artistic creativity, but also a life-transforming project accomplished in the unity of human effort and God’s grace. According to Fedorov’s historiosophical model, evangelical images and plots mark the transition from “history as a fact,” based on fratricidal strife and struggle, to “history as a project,” in which the human race consciously and freely chooses the path of following Christ, accepts the ideal of love and sacrifice as the basis of thought and action, and then to “history as an act,” which becomes the realization of the “good news” about the Kingdom of God, the “work of salvation,” the work of resurrection and regulation. The fate of the prodigal son, the prudent robber, the centurion, Zacchaeus, etc. in Fedorov’s interpretation, they symbolize the turn of humanity from the “fallen state” to the divine-human service. The projective approach to evangelical images and plots echoes the philosopher’s projective approach to literary texts and is aligned with the philosopher’s interpretation of the world literary types — Hamlet, Manfred, Faust Don Juan, who, like the characters of a gospel story, act as carriers of certain ideals and images of action. However, unlike the latter, they remain within the framework of the “minor” choice. Fedorov asserts the ideal of “universal realism,” which sets the prospect of the world’s transformation. The philosopher considers the adult choice of literature, its missionary role in the liturgization of creativity, part of which may be a new development of gospel themes and plots. Just as in the analysis of literary works Fedorov builds on the plots of “Faust,” “Dead Souls,” he builds the stories of the prudent robber, Lazarus, etc., stretches the threads of interaction between the gospel plots, reconstructs the links of the gospel story, creating projects of future novels that the masters of the word should embody.

Summary Statements in the Gospel of Matthew

This article examines the summary statements in the first gospel. The investigation aims to establish a precise set of Matthean texts belonging to this literary genre. Following a presentation of a variety of solutions (R. Schnackenburg, J. Gnilka, E. Schweizer, D.A. Hagner, R.H. Gundry, J. Nolland, A. Paciorek, U. Luz, R.T. France, W.D. Davies and D.C. Allison, C.S. Keener, G.R. Osborne, C.A. Evans, S. Grasso, W. Egger, B. Gerhardsson, L. Novakovic), literary considerations are examined against the background of various scholarly propositions, giving precise criteria to denote a given gospel text as a summary. On this basis, eight Matthean texts are proposed as summaries – (1) 4:23–25, (2) 8:16–17, (3) 9:35–36, (4) 12:15–21, (5) 14:13–14, (6) 14:34–36, (7) 15:29–31, and (8) 19:1–2 – while showing their thematic interpenetration and mutual dependence.

Terminological Thesaurus of the Gospel Text by Dostoevsky: Сorpus Analysis and Interpretation Results

The article presents the integrated results of the corpus analysis and interpretation of the terminological dictionary from 700 articles published in the “Problems of Historical Poetics” journal from 1990 to 2021 Based on this data and taking into account the rich lexicographic tradition that reflects the author’s original or thematic terminology — from Antony Khrapovitsky’s “Dictionary to the works of Dostoevsky” (1921) to recent thesaurus-type dictionaries, a thesaurus of the gospel text by F. M. Dostoevsky is compiled. It is a conceptual apparatus that representatively reflects the current state of the study of the writer’s gospel text using terms and concepts that belong to the spheres of general historical poetics and ethnopoetics, theology and philosophy. Dictionary entries devoted to such key concepts of Russian literary criticism of the 21st century as “historical poetics,” “ethnopoetics,” “gospel text,” etc. are given as illustrative examples. The article concludes that this dictionary has promising applied value for solving educational and scientific problems.

'Единородный Бог’ (Ин 1.18) ― ошибка переписчика или формула исповедания?

The article is devoted to the famous alternative readings in the Gospel text ― the Only Begotten Son/Only Begotten God (John 1:18), which has a rich history in ancient theology. In the history of biblical studies, this verse is an interesting case of interaction between various types of Scripture ― Alexandrian and Byzantine. The reading under consideration ― the Only Begotten God ― refers to the ancient Alexandrian text, which has high characteristics and deservedly enjoys great confidence in biblical studies. A review and analysis of manuscript evidence based on the most recent and authoritative critical editions of the text of the New Testament Scripture, involving the latest special scientific literature. The internal expressive features of the New Testament theology and the theological language of St. John the Theologian, supporting the argument in favor of evidence of the unity of the Son and the Father. Opinions and conclusions are drawn regarding the considered phrase between the most outstanding and contemporary bibleists, including native scientists. Finally, an extensive patristic tradition of using the term Only Begotten God is attracted, which is localized in Alexandrian theology and in the adjacent individual theologians and calls for an extensive period of time of a quarter millennium from Clement to Cyril of Alexandria. On the example of this phrase, an assumption is put forward about the relationship between the Alexandrian type of the text of the New Testament and the Alexandrian theological school and tradition. The oldest cases of the use of the expression Only Begotten God in patristics also reveal another feature, possibly related to his appearance, namely, his primary circulation in the Gnostic script of Alexandrian origin (Valentine, Ptolemy, Heraclion), where, however, this name was endowed with very peculiar meanings. The most intensive period of use of the expression falls on the time of Trinitarian disputes of the fourth century, moreover, for all three conditional periods ― Arian, Omiousian and Eunomian. Relevant historical evidence is attracted and considered and a certain dynamics of use in heterodox theology is traced. Finally, the most important Orthodox theologian who widely used the name Only Begotten God turns out to be St. Gregory of Nyssa, who significantly enriched his initially Trinitarian sound by identifying Christological shades in it. For the theological interpretation of the material, the latest development of the Orthodox patristic scholar and theologian father John Behr ― the distinction of "high Christology" and "low Christology"

MOSCOW BIBLE OF 1663: FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF THE BOOK CORRECTION

This article traces the forming process of the linguistic principles of Moscow Printing Yard editors, which guided them in preparing the publication of the Moscow (“First printed”) Bible of 1663 on the basis of the text of the Ostrog Bible of 1581. Results of the comparative analysis of spelling and grammatical corrections in the Psalter, the Four Gospels and in the Book of Genesis are presented. It was found out that the degree of imperative corrections made to the language of the Book of Genesis turned out to be signifi cantly lower than in the Psalter and Gospel texts. Optional corrections of the plural dative and accusative cases of valid participle in the Book of Genesis are observed, contradictive and inconsistent corrections in functions of the letter zelo, digraph îÓ and ligature ó, è-octal and 1-decimal take place. Spelling matching of lexical homonyms язык as ‘body part, speech’ (γλώσσα) and as ‘people, tribe’ (ἔθνος) was not implemented based on the principle of antistich. It indicates the defects of correction work in relation to these linguistic elements at the very beginning of work on the Moscow Bible. An indicator that the Biblical work took place in several stages, and its criteria were developed and approved directly during the preparation of the Biblical codeх for publication, is the presence of grammatical corrections in the Book of Genesis made in glosses (correction of the aorist to the perfect on second person singular), i.e. asynchronous with respect to corrections, the results which are refl ected in the main body of the text.

The Gospel of Judas: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary by David Brakke

Reviewed by: The Gospel of Judas: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary by David Brakke Sheila E. McGinn david brakke, The Gospel of Judas: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary (AYB 45; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2022). Pp. xix + 270. $65. Building on his previous translation of the Gospel of Judas (for Bentley Layton's edition of The Gnostic Scriptures [2nd ed.; AYBRL; New Haven: Yale University Press, 2021), David Brakke provides a new translation and critical commentary on this short but significant product of ancient Gnostic Christianity. The volume is divided into three main sections: (1) an introduction to the extant texts of Judas in Greek and Coptic, followed by a substantial bibliography of recent works related to Gnosticism generally, the Gospel of Judas specifically, and critical issues related to this Gnostic Gospel; (2) B.'s translation of Judas, which most often follows that of Lance Jenott (The Gospel of Judas: Coptic Text, Translation, and Historical Interpretation of "the Betrayer's Gospel" (Studien und Texte zu Antike und Christentum 64; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2011) but also takes into account [End Page 353] other published translations and critical editions; and (3) extensive notes and comments on the reconstructed text. Since only about 90 percent of the text is extant (between Codex Tchacos and other fragments), manifold text-critical issues arise from the manuscript traditions. B. ably navigates those issues in the "notes and comments" section, while admitting that some interpretive decisions must remain tentative due to the fragmentary nature of the evidence. Radiocarbon dating of the papyrus comprising the Coptic Codex Tchacos leads to a likely fourth-century date for this most complete witness to the Gospel of Judas (p. 8), but B. deftly uses linguistic details to argue for an earlier Greek original behind the Coptic version. Based on the description of "other" Gnostic traditions in Irenaeus Against the Heresies 1.23–31 (esp. 1.31.1), B. urges a mid-second-century (130–170) origin for the Greek text of this dialogue Gospel and views Rome as "a strong candidate" for its place of origin (p. 12). This dating and provenance allow B. to situate Judas in the context of other works such as 1 Clement, the writings of Justin Martyr and Ignatius of Antioch, and the reported teachings of Basilides. B. proposes using these other early Christian works to contextualize "what one gnostic Christian presented as the truth of the Christian message and as the ways in which many of his fellow Christians had failed to understand and follow that message" (p. 17). Since many scholars have classified the Gospel of Judas as a "Sethian" Gnostic text, B. gives considerable attention to this point, insisting that such a categorization is misleading. He highlights two distinctive features of the Gospel of Judas in comparison to other Gnostic works: (1) language drawn from "heavenly lore and apocalyptic Judaism, without much influence from philosophical traditions," and (2) "ontological continuity between the higher [immortal, divine] and lower [mortal, earthly] realms" (p. 44). Both features differentiate the Gospel of Judas from Irenaeus's reports (e.g., in Haer. 1.29.4 and 30.3–5) and the mythic narratives in Sethian works like the Secret Book according to John (p. 44). B. argues that one ought not force the Gospel of Judas into some predetermined "canonical" Sethian system but instead to recognize that Judas fits in the context of developing traditions within mid-second-century Gnosticism (p. 45). In harmony with this greater "ontological continuity between the higher and lower realms," B. identifies the "racial" language of the Gospel (esp. genea) as differentiating religious practice rather than reflective of an ontological or biological determinism (pp. 46–51). Intra-Christian polemic is evident in the Gospel of Judas in the recurring critiques of eucharistic meal practices as well as in language of sacrifice and priesthood. The bread-breaking Eucharist of the other disciples blesses a false god ("Saklas," the god of Israel, rather than the invisible spirit who sent Jesus) and brings death rather than life. "The author [of the Gospel of Judas] criticizes an understanding of the eucharist as a sacrifice made to the god of Israel, over...

Finding Bede in the “Lindisfarne” Gospels: Aldred the Scribe and “beda ðe broema boecere”

Finding Bede in the “Lindisfarne” Gospels: Aldred the Scribe and “beda ðe broema boecere”

A Systemic Functional Linguistic Analysis of Clauses Relationship in Luke Gospel Text, Janji Baru Using Kupang Malay

This paper reports on a functional linguistics study of clauses relationship in which it is included as textual meta function of meaning. This textual metafunction is on the level of lexicogrammar. Semantic sequence of figures is realized by a clause complexes series. This paper focused on relationship types between clauses, interdependency and logico-semantic relationship. Data were taken from A Bible, New Testament using Kupang Malay called Janji Baru, especially in Luke of Gospel text. The analysis revealed that parataxis used in text covered coordinate conjunctions such as, deng ’and’, ma, ‘but’, jadi/ko ‘so, for’, ais ju ‘then’. The hypotaxis used subordinate conjunctions, such as, kalo ‘if’’ tagal ‘because/since’, te ‘cause’. The use of parataxis and hypotaxis indicates that semantic sequence is coherence in which conjunctions used in text are usually repeated. It is the same as the use of logico-semantic, such as expansion and projection. The expansion consisted of elaboration, extension, and enhancement. The projection consisted of locution and idea that related to phenomena of a higher order of experience. The idea used verbal process, such as, kastau bilang ‘tell/say’, manyao bilang, ’answer’, tanya bilang ‘ask’, etc. This fact indicates that the idea stated was stressed by using serial verbs or usually a verb was ended by other verb’ This fact indicates to attract listeners’ attention. The locution used mental process, such as, rasa ‘feel’ ‘inga’ ‘remember’. Thus, it can be stated that the use of interdependency and logico-semantic relation was aimed to keep the semantic sequence and text coherence.

Clement of Alexandria’s Homily "Quis Dives Salvetur?" and Its Pastoral Challenges for Alexandrian Christians

The article reconsiders the structure of Clement’s writing Quis dives salvetur? and as a consequence questions the traditional designation of this text as a homily. In the first part, the article focuses on the Gospel text quoted by Clement and attempts to explain some of the unusual choices of the text. In the second part, it highlights some pastorally interesting or, on the contrary, controversial aspects of Clement’s interpretation: (a) the use of the Stoic concept of indifferent things, which makes it possible to give emphasis to the freedom of human decision; (b) the thorough justification of the allegorical interpretation of Mk 10, 21; (c) the pastoral project of the “divine business” based on Lk 16, 9 and finally (d) the possibility of a second repentance after baptism justified by the story of the Apostle John.

The Old Bulgarian Demonstrative Pronoun сь as a Subordinate Element in the Verb Group and its Equivalents in Old English

This paper presents a model for the analysis of pronouns based on two types of characterizations – semantic-grammatical and communicative-pragmatic ones. Each of them consists of a set of categorial and relational features. The semantic-grammatical and communicative-pragmatic characterizations determine the types of deixis expressed by pronouns. The model is tested on the demonstrative pronoun сь used as a subordinate element in the verb group. Excerpted material from Old Bulgari-an Gospel texts is studied in comparison with Old English, Greek and Latin translations.

A New (Double Palimpsest) Witness to the Old Syriac Gospels (Vat. iber. 4, ff. 1 & 5)

AbstractVat. iber. 4, a membrum disjectum of the manuscript Sin. geo. 49, contains on two of its folios the Syriac Gospel text as the lowest layer (scriptio ima) within a double palimpsest. Comparison with known Syriac versions of the extant text – Matt 11.30–12.26 – shows that the text represents the Old Syriac version, and is particularly akin to the Curetonianus (Syc). On palaeographic grounds, the original Gospel manuscript can be dated to the first half of the sixth century. The fragment is so far the only known vestige of the fourth manuscript witness to the Old Syriac version.

Tatian’s Diatessaron: Composition, Redaction, Recension, and Reception. By James W. Barker

Scholars have long been enticed by Tatian’s now-lost Diatessaron, a second-century harmonized gospel, for its potential to grant access to a fourfold gospel text that predates most surviving manuscripts. The impasse has been that reconstructing the Diatessaron has involved comparing multiple witnesses across several languages without a clear consensus of their priority or value. James Barker has produced a groundbreaking study that elevates research on the relationships between Diatessaronic witnesses to a new level of understanding. With a title that echoes William Petersen’s defining 1994 monograph, Tatian’s Diatessaron: Its Creation, Dissemination, Significance, and History in Scholarship (Brill), Barker drives the field beyond Petersen’s generation of scholars focused primarily on the reconstruction of Tatian’s wording. Instead, Barker concentrates on reconstructing Tatian’s sequence, and thereby produces a revolutionary new stemma of Diatessaronic witnesses based on better evidence than any heretofore (p. 118; but see my caveat below). Barker’s work permanently alters the direction of the field.