Good Welfare Research Articles

Long-Term Spatial Restriction Generates Deferred Limited Space Use in a Zoo-Housed Chimpanzee Group.

Simple SummaryA worldwide trend amongst zoos is to replacesmall, barren enclosures with large, naturalistic ones intended to provide animals with environments which cater to their behavioural and psychological needs. Evidence suggests that naturalistic enclosures are effective but most studies focus on welfare-related behaviour or human perceptions of the enclosures. To date, little attention has been given to how animals use space in naturalistic enclosures. Our study investigated how a group of chimpanzees at the Johannesburg Zoo used space in a naturalistic enclosure by recording behaviour and space use every 5 min for an hour at a time. We found that the chimpanzees showed a preference for locations within the enclosure which coincided with their previous housing and that the chimpanzees form subgroups which conform to the space of their previous housing (i.e., small, barren enclosure). We suggest that the chimpanzees’ perception of space has been altered by their experience of the previous, smaller barren housing and that this limits their space use in the naturalistic enclosure through what appears to be a self-imposed ‘invisible cage’ around subgroups. Exactly how the ‘invisible cage’ works is unclear but our findings have implications for animal welfare, husbandry and broader conservation of endangered species.Background: Appropriate space is considered paramount for good captive animal welfare. There has been a concerted effort by captive institutions, particularly zoos, to provide captive animals with relatively large, naturalistic enclosures which havehad demonstrated welfare benefits for animals. However, post-occupancy assessments of these enclosures tend to focus on short-term welfare-centredbehavioural effects or human perceptions of the enclosures and their effects and seldom consider spaceuse. We examined the space use of a group of eight captive chimpanzees 5 years after large-scale enclosure modification at the Johannesburg Zoo, South Africa. Methods: Instantaneous scan sampling was used to record behaviour and location of each chimpanzee at 5 min intervals in the new enclosure. From these 6.8 h of data, space-use patterns and subgroup (two or more chimpanzees within 10 m of each other) spacing were considered relative to local environmental variables, social conditions and the location and size of the previous smaller enclosures in which they had been kept. Results: Space use was heterogeneous, with some enclosure zones being used more than others, and 97.5% of subgroups restricted their spacing to the dimensions of the previous housing (10 m × 10 m). Conclusions: This pattern was not explained by individual behaviour, time of day, location, available space, weather, temperature or shade availability, inter-individual spacing or subgroup composition. We suggest the learned helplessness phenomenon may explain these observations and discuss the implications for both animal welfare and endangered species conservation.Regardless of the mechanism, we suggest that such effects could be avoided through the provision of large enclosures for captive animals.

The Effect of Population Density, Educational Access Inequality and Health Access Inequality on Economic Growth

The public welfare is related to population growth and the availability of public goods such as education and health. Workforce with good welfare is expected to generate high labor productivity, so it can produce more output of goods and services and increase economic growth. Population density, educational access inequality, and health access inequality will have a negative effect on economic growth. The aimed of this study: First, to analyze the picture of economic growth, population density, educational access inequality, and health access inequality in Indonesia. Second, to analyze the effect of population density, educational access inequality, and health access inequality to economic growth in Indonesia. This research type is explanatory research by using quantitative method. The analysis technique used multiple regression analysis with dummy variable. The result of this study are obtained: 1) population density has a significant effect on economic growth; 2) Educational access inequality has a significant effect on economic growth; 3) Health access inequality has no significant effect on economic growth.

Towards sustainable smart cities: Maturity assessment and development pattern recognition in China

Rapid population growth and urban sprawl create pressure on environmental resources along with a growing demand for physical resources in cities. The concept of a smart sustainable city proposes a framework to ensure citizens a better life and protect the environment to maintain sustainability through information and communication technologies. This paper constructed a sustainable smart city development indicator system using the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) maturity model and assessed the maturity level of 35 cities in China. Spectral clustering was adopted to recognize development patterns on three dimensions and 53 indicators. The results indicated four development patterns. Completing developing elements converged in comprehensive-development cities. Environmental-friendly cities enhanced environmental quality under government guidance supported by information and communications technology. Welfare cities showed good social welfare via the government's highly focused strategy but lacked economic support. Innovation, trade, capital investment, mental poverty, and poor living conditions characterized undeveloped cities. Practical implications are recommended for each type according to development differences to build a better smart sustainable city.

M-KIA 79 application version 2.0 for Integrated Healthcare Center services at Posyandu Kenangan in Samarinda

Posyandu is a form of Community Based Health Efforts which is managed from, by, for, and with the community, in order to empower the community and provide convenience to the community in obtaining basic health services. Based on field data, it was found that the problems faced by the Posyandu Kenangan were the limited number of cadres, unrepresentative places due to frequent flooding, lack of awareness about Posyandu and data histories that was often lost and scattered due to flooding. The purpose of this activity is to develop an application called M-KIA 79 Version 2.0. The implementation of this community service will fulfill the SDG's goals, namely good health and welfare, quality education and sustainable cities and communities. This community service is carried out in the form of producing the M-KIA 79 Application which will be used by Posyandu Kenangan’s cadres in recording the health history of infants, toddlers, and pregnant women and socializing the use of the M-KIA 79 Application. The implementation of making this application is carried out using several approaches to Design Analysis and System Design. The results of this study are in terms of socialization of the M-KIA 79 application, the community response is 95% agree and this application can be well received by the community, posyandu cadres and health centers.

Pengaruh Kompetensi dan Loyalitas Karyawan terhadap Promosi Jabatan pada PT KEMET Electronics Indonesia Dengan Metode SEM-PLS

The success of a company in advancing the company must not be separated from many of its resources one of which is the human resources, which is why the company should provide direction that is positive and good welfare to its employees for the achievement of organizational goals, one of them by providing opportunities career or promotion. The purpose of this study to determine the effect of the competence and loyalty of employees to promotion in PT KEMET Electronics Indonesia. The number of samples in the data analysis of this thesis using PLS-SEM (Structural Equation Modeling-Partial Least Squares) and processed with the help of a software program SmartPLS2. The test results show that the competence of positive and significant impact on the promotion, as well as employee loyalty is also positive and significant impact on the promotion.

The behavioural ecology of Sepiolidae (Cephalopoda: Sepiolida): a review

ABSTRACT Sepiolidae (Cephalopoda: Sepiolida) are growing in popularity as model organisms, not least because of their well-studied symbiotic relationship with light producing bacteria. Their easy maintenance and cultivation requirements in captivity have further facilitated their use in a wide range of developmental, anatomical, neurophysiological, behavioural and genetic studies, exhibiting promising opportunities for these cephalopods in research. Considering the rising interest in sepiolids, a detailed overview of their behavioural ecology is necessary to understand their evolution and conservation, as well as to aid establishment of good welfare practice when held in captivity. To date, not all aspects of the sepiolid ecology have been investigated in detail, and our current knowledge of their behavioural ecology is, for the most part, restricted to descriptions from less than 10 of the approximately 80 species, occasionally resulting in a generalisation of specific observations across species, genera, or even subfamilies. This review summarises current knowledge on sepiolid behavioural ecology and life history, including discussions on their habitat, life span, activity patterns, hunting and feeding behaviour, anti-predator behaviour, burying behaviour, and reproductive behaviour. Moreover, future directions as well as areas of interest for upcoming research studies are highlighted.

Growth and Welfare of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Response to Graded Levels of Insect and Poultry By-Product Meals in Fishmeal-Free Diets.

Simple SummaryProcessed animal proteins, such as poultry by-product meal (PBM) and insect meal from black soldier fly (BSFM), are receiving growing interest as alternative or complementary protein sources for carnivorous farmed fish diets, due to their high nutritional value and low environmental footprint. The present study aimed to evaluate the effects of PBM and BSFM as partial substitutes for vegetable protein in fishmeal-free diets on growth, whole-body composition, nutrient-energy mass balance and retention, digestive functions, stress, metabolic status, innate immunity, and liver health in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). The overall results showed that fishmeal-free diets, including high levels of both PBM and BSFM, either singly or in combination, improved growth, dietary nutrient and energy utilization, and gut function relative to a plant-protein control diet or a fishmeal-based one, with no detrimental effects on fish welfare.This study compared the nutrient-energy retention, digestive function, growth performance, and welfare of rainbow trout (ibw 54 g) fed isoproteic (42%), isolipidic (24%), fishmeal-free diets (CV) over 13 weeks. The diets consisted of plant-protein replacement with graded levels (10, 30, 60%) of protein from poultry by-product (PBM) and black soldier fly H. illucens pupae (BSFM) meals, either singly or in combination. A fishmeal-based diet was also tested (CF). Nitrogen retention improved with moderate or high levels of dietary PBM and BSFM relative to CV (p < 0.05). Gut brush border enzyme activity was poorly affected by the diets. Gastric chitinase was up-regulated after high BSFM feeding (p < 0.05). The gut peptide and amino acid transport genes were differently regulated by protein source and level. Serum cortisol was unaffected, and the changes in metabolites stayed within the physiological range. High PBM and high BSFM lowered the leukocyte respiratory burst activity and increased the lysozyme activity compared to CV (p < 0.05). The BSFM and PBM both significantly changed the relative percentage of lymphocytes and monocytes (p < 0.05). In conclusion, moderate to high PBM and BSFM inclusions in fishmeal-free diets, either singly or in combination, improved gut function and nutrient retention, resulting in better growth performance and the good welfare of the rainbow trout.

Citizens' Use of eHealth Services During COVID-19 in Relation to National Policy Goals.

The main goals of the Swedish eHealth strategy are to enable citizens to achieve good and equal health and welfare, and to support self-determination and increased participation in society. We analyzed the relationship between these goals and the use of eHealth services offered for citizens prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Data was collected through a national citizen survey issued in 2019 and 2021 to a sample size of 15.000 representative individuals each. Results showed that the use of eHealth services was highest in the 30-49 years age group and among respondents with high education. There were no major differences between respondents with high, medium, or low income, and neither between respondents with different degrees of self-perceived health, nor between native Swedish and non-Swedish respondents. Changes in use of different eHealth services over time were most probably related to the pandemic and are not significant. All age groups showed a similar relative increase regarding their use of eHealth services, except when searching the Internet for diagnosis and treatment where persons above 75 years of age had the largest increase. Most significant were the increase in online visits and the decrease in maintaining health, training, or food diaries. Strategic goals related to equity seem to be partly met as eHealth services are used to the same degree by different socio-economic groups. However, the older population uses eHealth services less than other age groups and a deeper understanding of the relationship between specific services and their impact on strategic goals is needed.

Animal Welfare and Resistance to Disease: Interaction of Affective States and the Immune System.

Good management and improved standards of animal welfare are discussed as important ways of reducing the risk of infection in farm animals without medication. Increasing evidence from both humans and animals suggests that environments that promote wellbeing over stress and positive over negative emotions can reduce susceptibility to disease and/or lead to milder symptoms. We point out, however, that the relationship between welfare, immunity, and disease is highly complex and we caution against claiming more than the current evidence shows. The accumulating but sometimes equivocal evidence of close links between the brain, the gut microbiome, immunity, and welfare are discussed in the context of the known links between mental and physical health in humans. This evidence not only provides empirical support for the importance of good welfare as preventative medicine in animals but also indicates a variety of mechanisms by which good welfare can directly influence disease resistance. Finally, we outline what still needs to be done to explore the potential preventative effects of good welfare.

Commercial layer hybrids kept under organic conditions: a comparison of range use, welfare, and egg production in two layer strains

Outdoor range areas provide laying hens with improved opportunities to perform natural behaviors and increase the available space per bird, however, birds are also exposed to potentially stressful factors including weather and predators. Ability to cope with challenging environments varies between different strains and must be considered to ensure good welfare. The aim of this study was to determine how suitable 2 hybrids, the Dekalb White (DW) and the Bovans Brown (BB), are for organic production with special emphasis on ranging behavior. A total of 1,200 hens were housed according to organic regulations across 12 flocks of 100 birds. Range and shelter use, effect of weather, vegetation cover, egg production and quality, and mortality were assessed in addition to a range of clinical welfare indicators. Initially a greater proportion of DW hens accessed the range. However, after approximately 2 mo, a greater proportion of BB were using the range and venturing further from the house. DW hens were more likely to use the shelters than BB hens (P < 0.001). Vegetation was also worn away to a greater extent in the BB ranges. Weather affected the proportion of hens that went outside, the distance ranged from the popholes, and shelter use. BB hens were found to have better plumage condition (P < 0.001), fewer footpad lesions (P < 0.001), fewer comb wounds (P < 0.001), and lower mortality rates (P = 0.013). Both hybrids experienced keel bone fractures, though DW hens had more at the cranial portion (P < 0.001) and BB at the caudal portion (P < 0.001). DW hens had an earlier onset of lay and higher egg production than BB hens (P < 0.001), though BB hens laid heavier eggs (P < 0.001) with thicker shells (P = 0.001). Overall, BB hens seemed to perform superiorly or equivalently to the DW hens for all variables apart from egg production. These results demonstrate the importance of considering the strain of bird selected for organic production systems in order for the birds to reap the potential benefits that are offered by outdoor access.

Should Animal Welfare Be Defined in Terms of Consciousness?

AbstractDefinitions of animal welfare often invoke consciousness or sentience. Marian Stamp Dawkins has argued that to define animal welfare this way is a mistake. In Dawkins’s alternative view, an animal with good welfare is one that is healthy and “has what it wants.” The dispute highlights a source of strain on the concept of animal welfare: consciousness-involving definitions are better able to capture the normative significance of welfare, whereas consciousness-free definitions facilitate the validation of welfare indicators. I reflect on how the field should respond to this strain, ultimately recommending against splitting the concept and in favor of consciousness-involving definitions.

Animal welfare analysis: a case of smallholder farmers in Zambia.

Animal welfare remains a contemporary issue in livestock development as World Organization for Animal Health stresses its importance in the livestock trade. Key elements of good animal welfare include animals being healthy, comfortable, well-nourished, safe, not suffering from unpleasant states such as pain, fear, and distress, and expressing behaviours that are important for their physical and mental health. These are important for the high performance of animals in terms of productivity and product quality. Given the importance of animal welfare in enhancing livestock productivity, quality, food safety, and economic returns, the study aimed to identify the aspects of animal welfare that need more attention among the Zambian smallholder livestock farmers and determine whether the current policy and legal frameworks governing animal welfare are adequate. Using data collected from 271 smallholder households, the study found that routine management practices such as dipping animals, branding, castration, and vaccination were the major animal welfare concerns that needed more attention. Therefore more efforts and extension services should also be dedicated to addressing these concerns. Furthermore, the policy framework guiding animal welfare is inadequate as particular welfare concerns such as housing and nutrition are not well covered. This calls for the revision of the policy framework to incorporate all aspects of animal welfare.

Emerging Precision Management Methods in Poultry Sector

New approach to improve welfare in the poultry sector is targeted at the precise management of animals. In poultry production, we observe that birds’ health and quality of poultry products depend significantly on good welfare conditions, affecting economic efficiency. Using technology solutions in different systems of animal production is an innovation that can help farmers more effectively control the environmental conditions and health of birds. In addition, rising public concern about poultry breeding and welfare leads to developing solutions to increase the efficiency of control and monitoring in this animal production branch. Precision livestock farming (PLF) collects real-time data of birds using different types of technologies for this process. It means that PLF can help prevent lowering animal welfare by detecting early stages of diseases and stressful situations during birds’ management and allows steps to be taken quickly enough to limit the adverse effects. This review shows connections between the possibilities of using the latest technologies to monitor laying hens and broilers in developing precision livestock farming.

Low Holding Densities Increase Stress Response and Aggression in Zebrafish.

Simple SummaryZebrafish are used as experimental animals in labs all around the world. To ensure that the health of zebrafish is maintained at the highest level, it is important to know the optimal housing conditions of the animals, including the housing density. Guidelines for housing densities of zebrafish can then be spread and followed globally, making it possible to compare research data from different facilities. To investigate the optimal housing densities of zebrafish and to better understand how holding density affects zebrafish behaviour and physiology, we evaluated the welfare of zebrafish housed at different densities for nine weeks. We observed that fish housed at the lowest holding density of 1 fish/L stood out from the rest of the experimental fish, showing higher levels of aggression, secreting more of the stress hormone cortisol in the water, and spending more time in the top zone of the tank, possibly reflecting the fact that fish in this density were hiding more behind the floating plants. Our data indicate that zebrafish should not be kept at 1 fish/L, or lower, to ensure good welfare of the animals.With laboratory zebrafish (Danio rerio) being an established and popular research model, there is a need for universal, research-based husbandry guidelines for this species, since guidelines can help promote good welfare through providing appropriate care. Despite the widespread use of zebrafish in research, it remains unclear how holding densities affect their welfare. Previous studies have mainly evaluated the effects of holding densities on a single parameter, such as growth, reproductive output, or social interactions, rather than looking at multiple welfare parameters simultaneously. Here we investigated how chronic (nine weeks) exposure to five different holding densities (1, 4, 8, 12, and 16 fish/L) affected multiple welfare indicators. We found that fish in the 1 fish/L density treatment had higher free water cortisol concentrations per fish, increased vertical distribution, and displayed aggressive behaviour more frequently than fish held at higher densities. On the other hand, density treatments had no effect on anxiety behaviour, whole-brain neurotransmitter levels, egg volume, or the proportion of fertilised eggs. Our results demonstrate that zebrafish can be held at densities between 4 and 16 fish/L without compromising their welfare. However, housing zebrafish in the density of 1 fish/L increased their stress level and aggressive behaviour.

Champing at the Bit for Improvements: A Review of Equine Welfare in Equestrian Sports in the United Kingdom.

Simple SummaryThis review explores the evidence for the effect of equestrian sports on equine welfare and highlights scenarios in which their welfare can be impaired and where efforts are being made to improve it. We discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what it means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of animal welfare risk to the life of equids used for sport from foal to retirement. This is followed by a unique analysis of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare, exposing the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. We conclude with recommendations to ensure good welfare for all equids used for sport in the UK and beyond.Equestrian sports, including racing (e.g., flat, steeple-chasing, harness or donkey derby); show-jumping; cross-country; dressage; polo; polocrosse; endurance; carriage driving; vaulting and hunting; are hugely popular in the UK, and they involve a significant number of people, both as participants and spectators, and tens of thousands of equids. In this paper, we discuss animal welfare as a complex and disputed issue, clarifying what the term means and how it can be measured. We review many aspects of welfare risk to equids used for sport, addressing issues encountered throughout their lives, including housing, feeding, veterinary intervention, shoeing, handling, training, breeding and equipment. This is followed by a unique exploration of the institutions and social processes influencing equine welfare. The institutional components comprise the rules of competition, the equids, attributes of the stakeholders and the space where participants strive to achieve a common purpose. We endeavour to untangle the most significant elements that create barriers or provide opportunities for equine welfare improvement. We expose the challenges faced by a broad range of stakeholders with differing ethics, attitudes and values. Evidently, there are many welfare risks to which equids used in sports continue to be exposed. It is also evident that significant improvements have occurred in recent times, but there remains a barrier to reducing the risks to an acceptable level. We conclude with recommendations regarding a process for change, involvement of stakeholders and management of knowledge to improve equine welfare that involves identifying and prioritising the risk factors and ultimately leading to interventions, further research and/or education.

Pampered pets or poor bastards? The welfare of dogs kept as companion animals

Over the past two centuries, the typical life of dogs has changed dramatically, especially in the Global North. Dogs have moved into human homes, becoming human companions. In many respects, this change seems to have led to improvements in dog welfare. However, the shift into family homes from the free-roaming lifestyle characteristic of dogs as they lived and co-evolved with humans in the past, has created a typically more confined and isolated lifestyle for dogs. In addition, over the same period, selective breeding of dogs, largely driven by human aesthetic ideals and concepts of breed purity, has transformed dog populations. In this discussion paper, based on a narrative literature review, we compare the welfare of companion dogs with that of modern village dogs. We adopt this comparison because dogs have lived in ways resembling village dog life for most of their history. As such, the comparison may serve as a good basis for assessing the effects of the ‘petification’ of dogs. We argue that compared to the typical village dog, the typical modern suburban or urban companion dog experiences good welfare in a number of respects. This is especially the case when it comes to security, satisfaction of nutritional needs (though companion dogs have problems with a high prevalence of obesity), and proper veterinary care. However, in other ways the modern companion dog often suffers from a range of human-created challenges leading to poor welfare. We examine two key challenges for companion dogs: 1) unrealistic social demands that can lead to anxiety, depression, and aggression, and 2) ill devised breeding schemes that result in breeding-related diseases for many companion dogs.

The immune-neuroendocrine system, a key aspect of poultry welfare and resilience

There is increasing societal concern regarding the negative impact of intensive poultry production on animal welfare, human health, and on the environment. This is leading to the inclusion of animal welfare as an imperative aspect for sustainable production. Certain environmental factors may challenge domesticated birds, resulting in poor health and welfare status. Resilience is the capacity to rapidly return to prechallenge status after coping with environmental stressors, thus resilient individuals have better chances to maintain good health and welfare. Immune-neuroendocrine system, thoroughly characterized in the domestic bird species, is the physiological scaffold for stress coping and health maintenance, influencing resilience and linking animal welfare status to these vital responses. Modern domestic bird lines have undergone specific genetic selective pressures for fast-growing, or high egg-production, leading to a diversity of birds that differ in their coping capacities and resilience. Deepening the knowledge on pro/anti-inflammatory milieus, humoral/cell-mediated immune responses, hormonal regulations, intestinal microbial communities and mediators that define particular immune and neuroendocrine configurations will shed light on coping strategies at the individual and population level. The understanding of the profiles leading to differential coping and resilience potential will be highly relevant for improving bird health and welfare in a wider range of challenging scenarios and, therefore, crucial to scientifically tackle long term sustainability.

An Overview of Rehabilitation Centres for People with Mental Challenges in Southwestern Nigeria

Rehabilitation is necessary for patients suffering from mental challenges for their benefit and society. Tis aim of rehabilitation is to enable patients with mental challenges be in conducive environment compared with how some of them constitute nuisance to the society and lived in slums. With rehabilitation, they are expected to enjoy toiletry; drinkable water, neat environment, better food intake, taking of prescribed drug regularly, and exposing them to different skills that will make them fit into the society after their recovery. The study investigated the welfare of people with mental challenges in non-governmental rehabilitation centres, and the efforts of the centres at making clients fit into the society in later life both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed for the study. The study population consist of five respondents who were owners and social workers at four rehabilitation centres randomly selected from Ondo and Osun States. Focus group discussion was also used. Data obtained was analysed using frequency count and percentages. Findings revealed that social welfare services provided for the patients were good, but efforts were not made by the centres at providing vocational training for these patients. The paper helps to contribute to the knowledge of the society and concluded that people with mental challenges need to be rehabilitated with good welfare services, and vocational training.

Evaluation of the time-activity budgets of captive ducks (Anatidae) compared to wild counterparts

Ducks are commonly housed in captive environments where their abilities for flight are constrained, either temporarily or permanently. The use of flight restraint in modern animal management is contentious and ethically questioned yet any associated impacts on behaviour remain poorly documented and evaluated. Comparison of information on wild ecology and activity of free-living individuals with information from the same species when captive-housed can reliably inform on “naturalness” of behaviour patterns if standardised methods are used. This research aimed to compare the activity of several species of ducks (Order Anseriformes) with information contained in the literature, and that collected from direct observation, to identify differences between the behaviours of captive and wild ducks. Observational data on the state behaviours for 17 duck species were collected at three Wildfowl & Wetland Trust (WWT) centres in the UK from 2015 to 2018, with behavioural data on two species of wild duck also collected via direct observation. A meta-analysis of time spent on key state behaviours (papers published up until 2018) was performed to provide comparison with the information provided on time-activity budgets of the captive birds. Results showed a multitude of factors influenced captive duck behaviour, but resting, maintenance and locomotion behaviours were most commonly observed. Wild birds differed significantly in their time-activity budgets compared to captive individuals and data from the meta-analysis revealed that foraging rates were higher in the wild than in captivity. Records of abnormal behaviour in captive birds were non-existent to very low in performance, suggesting that flight restrained ducks do not fill part of their time budget with stereotypic behaviour. Human presence may potentially influence of the behaviour of both wild and captive ducks living in wetland areas that attract human visitors. Seasonal, temporal and sex differences significantly also affected wild and captive duck behaviour. Further study should continue to investigate behavioural responses of these species to a range of captive housing to determine the most optimal way of providing for good welfare under human care. Research that investigates the behaviour of fully winged captive ducks to extend our evaluation of behaviour patterns in flight restrained birds (and to provide further review against wild data) is recommended.

Affective State Recognition in Livestock-Artificial Intelligence Approaches.

Simple SummaryEmotions or affective states recognition in farm animals is an underexplored research domain. Despite significant advances in animal welfare research, animal affective state computing through the development and application of devices and platforms that can not only recognize but interpret and process the emotions, are in a nascent stage. The analysis and measurement of unique behavioural, physical, and biological characteristics offered by biometric sensor technologies and the affiliated complex and large data sets, opens the pathway for novel and realistic identification of individual animals amongst a herd or a flock. By capitalizing on the immense potential of biometric sensors, artificial intelligence enabled big data methods offer substantial advancement of animal welfare standards and meet the urgent needs of caretakers to respond effectively to maintain the wellbeing of their animals.Farm animals, numbering over 70 billion worldwide, are increasingly managed in large-scale, intensive farms. With both public awareness and scientific evidence growing that farm animals experience suffering, as well as affective states such as fear, frustration and distress, there is an urgent need to develop efficient and accurate methods for monitoring their welfare. At present, there are not scientifically validated ‘benchmarks’ for quantifying transient emotional (affective) states in farm animals, and no established measures of good welfare, only indicators of poor welfare, such as injury, pain and fear. Conventional approaches to monitoring livestock welfare are time-consuming, interrupt farming processes and involve subjective judgments. Biometric sensor data enabled by artificial intelligence is an emerging smart solution to unobtrusively monitoring livestock, but its potential for quantifying affective states and ground-breaking solutions in their application are yet to be realized. This review provides innovative methods for collecting big data on farm animal emotions, which can be used to train artificial intelligence models to classify, quantify and predict affective states in individual pigs and cows. Extending this to the group level, social network analysis can be applied to model emotional dynamics and contagion among animals. Finally, ‘digital twins’ of animals capable of simulating and predicting their affective states and behaviour in real time are a near-term possibility.