Good Road Research Articles

Design of overloading detection systems on vehicles using adruino

Developing countries such as Indonesia are currently continuously conducting development activities in the economic sector. The role of transportation facilities is very important. The reason is that economic movement is not only centered on one particular area but also reaches out and involves other regions. Distribution of goods and services requires safe and convenient transportation and good road infrastructure. In practice, many heavy vehicles carry a very excessive transport load. This is due to the large distribution needs of goods to minimize operational costs. The negative impacts of overloading include the risk of accidents and road damage. This study aims to use a prototype method by utilizing the implementation of a load control system using a proximity sensor run by Arduino Uno. This concept utilizes proximity sensors to regulate transportation loads according to the standards of the Republic of Indonesia and monitor violations in real-time. The results of the study resulted in a prototype capable of detecting overload based on load height and suspension changes for loads.

Development of a Low Cost Mobile Phone-Based Intervention to Support Infants’ Vaccination among Nursing Mothers

In Nigeria, nursing mothers in rural communities lack public amenities such as safe water, adequate primary health care, good electricity supply, GSM network coverage and good road network. These often predispose them to be noncompliant to infants’ immunization uptakes and have high rates of morbidity in Vaccine Preventable Diseases (VPD) among infants. Mobile phones can be leveraged upon to provide a viable medium to support immunization uptakes and adherence using few mobile phone-based interventions which are available for low-income nursing mothers. Hence the study assessed development of a low cost mobile phone-based intervention to support infants’ vaccination among nursing mothers. The study developed a low cost mobile phone-based intervention to support infants’ vaccination among nursing mothers in an effort to alleviate the challenges of infant’s vaccination among nursing mothers, a low cost mobile phone-based application was designed and tested among nursing mothers. In the development of the app, incremental software development was adhered to using Java programming language in an Android Studio Integrated Development Environment (IDE). The software was pretested using pre and post experimental data collection. The app is a reminder system, preloaded with immunization awareness messages. It is simple to install and use and does not cost nursing mothers airtime or data. It only requires scheduling at-birth immunization’s date. The app can schedule and display all other immunization dates automatically; relate specific health benefits of each vaccine as a reminder messages both in English and Yoruba languages automatically as scheduled. The experiences of the nursing mothers with this software were gathered for six months through pre-test and post-test pre-experimental design. The app was found effective in reminding the nursing mothers about immunizations appointments, enlightening them about the immunization health benefits to their infants. The intervention has possibility of improving immunization compliances and attendants at clinic appointments. Since it is low cost software, it is therefore recommended for the nursing mothers. Keywords: Vaccine Preventable Diseases, immunization, Integrated Development Environment (IDE), intervention, mobile phone, nursing mother. Journal Reference Format: Onamade, A.A., Oyerinde, O.O., Oduwole, A.O. Lala, O.G. & Longe, O.B. (2021): Development of a Low Cost Mobile Phone-Based Intervention to Support Infants’ Vaccination among Nursing Mothers. Journal of Behavioural Informatics, Digital Humanities and Development Research. Vol. 7.No. 2, Pp 1-8 Available online at https://www.behaviouralinformaticsjournal.info dx.doi.org/ 10.22624/AIMS/BHI/V7N1P10

SPATIAL DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM FOR LIVELIHOOD PROGRAMMES IN NORTHERN NIGERIA

The paper examines the relevance of geospatial maps and technics in execution of livelihood support projects among rural poor. Previous attempts towards driving the poor along prosperity pathways in Nigeria have failed because of incorrect deployment of interventions in time and space. Global positioning systems and Geographical information systems were employed in this study to provide insight to the challenges faced by previous livelihood support projects in the country while also providing a robust spatial decision support system for geographical targeting of interventions to vulnerable households. The study selected 1,459 households from the 42,000 households adopted for the Feed the Future Project in 3 northern States namely; Sokoto, Kebbi States and the Federal Capital Territory. Acquired survey data were converted into GIS maps so as to expose hidden trends in the characteristics of target population and to suggest the best options for interventions. The data were subjected to spatial analysis such as simple distance analysis. The outcomes revealed 86% of sampled households to be largely below the poverty line. This is mainly due to poor access to facilities like health care, markets, good roads, agricultural inputs, agricultural information and advisory services. 10 % of children’s absolute score of Mid Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) revealed acute malnutrition. 42 % of the household however now have stronger safety nets as a result of the interventions. The study found Spatial Information technology highly useful in social intervention project as the one by the Feed the Future project

An Analysis of Factors Affecting the Severity of Cycling Crashes Using Binary Regression Model

The increasing use of bicycles rises the interest in investigating the safety aspects of daily commuting. In this investigation, more than 14,000 cyclists’ injuries were analyzed to determine the relationship between severity, road infrastructure characteristics, and surface conditions using binary regression. Minor and major severity categories were distinguished. A binary equation consists of 28 factors is extracted. It has been found that each factor related to roadway characteristics has its negative and positive impacts on cyclist severity such as traffic control, location type, topography, and roadway divisions. Regarding the road surface components, good, paved, and marked roads are associated with a higher probability of major injuries due to the expected greater frequencies of cyclists on roads with good conditions. In conclusion, probabilities of major injuries are higher in urban areas, higher speed limits, signalized intersections, inclined topographies, one-way roads, and during the daytime which require more attention and better considerations.

Church and Politics of Resource Control in Niger Delta, Nigeria

Niger Delta is a region in Nigeria that produces oil which is the Federal Government’s main source of income. The oil boom in 1970 marked the beginning of an intensive mining of oil in the Niger Delta that is responsible for the constant pollution of water, land and air that endanger the Niger Delta people’s source of drinking water, aquatic life, farm crops and more importantly the life of the people. The people of Niger Delta lack good roads, electricity, food, water and shelter. The incessant agitations in Niger Delta are borne out of the Federal Government’s neglect of the area to suffer without considering the disaster caused by continuous mining of oil in the area. However, the Niger Delta has been characterized by militancy in a bid to drive their agitation of resource control home. There is no doubt that the church is suspected of playing politics with resource control in the Niger Delta, rather than addressing the injustice in the area that resulted in the clamour for resource control. The paper examined the role played by the church in addressing the agitation by the Niger Delta people over resource control. In this paper, contextual hermeneutical approach was used in describing and analyzing the data. It was discovered that the church through its teaching has indirectly sensitized the Niger Delta people to fight for their right of controlling the resources (oil) endowed by God which they will give account at the end of the age. The paper recommended that the church should be on the side of the Niger Delta by using non – violent approach in fighting for resource control for justice to prevail. It is expected of the church to caution its members not to own oil wells at the detriment of the Niger Delta people. DOI: 10.7176/RHSS/11-13-02 Publication date: June 30 th 2021

PROFITABILITY OF YAM PRODUCTION IN PAIKORO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined the profitability of yam production among small-holder yam farmers in Paikoro Local Government Area of Niger State. Primary data were collected from 90 yam farmer’s selected using simple random sampling technique. The data were collected with the aid of a well-structured questionnaire and oral interview Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and budgetary techniques. The results of the socio-economic characteristics shows that majority (50%) of yam farmers were male, within the age range of 46- 55 years. Majority of the farmer had farm size less-than 1 hectare with at least 10 years farming experience. The total revenue was ₦582,588.72 per hectare while the total cost was estimated to be ₦218,197.98 per hectare. The net farm income was ₦364,390.74 per hectare. The return on investment was 1.67 meaning that on ₦1 invested on the yam production will yield ₦1.67 per hectare meaning that yam production was profitable in the study area. The major constraints faced by the yam farmers were inadequate access to credit facilities, poor transportation network, pests and diseases, poor storage facility and high cost of labour. It could be concluded that yam production in the study areas was economically viable, and among the constraints identified in the study areas, majority of the respondents attested to the fact that inadequate access to credit and poor transportation network were major constraints faced. It was therefore, recommended that, infrastructure facilities like good road network should be provided for the yam farmers in the study area. The concept of cooperative movement should be encouraged in the study area so as to solve the problem of credit facilities to the farmers. It is also recommended that effort should be made to intensify the number of extension visits as this signifies a strong factor in yam production in the study area.

PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF APPLE IN APPLE SUB-SECTOR DOLPA, NEPAL

Dolpa is the largest district and one of the major apple-producing districts of Nepal. It had seemingly an increasing trend of production and productivity of apple despite having low productivity than the national average. A study was carried out to study the production and marketing status of the district. Preliminary studies were done and a household survey was carried out among 125 apple-growing farmers from different wards of Tripurasundari and Thulibheri Municipality. 10 commercial farmers in Juphal along with five wholesalers and retailers each based in Nepalgunj were also interviewed to observe the marketing status of apple. 16.59 % of the income was generated through apple production behind government jobs and other agricultural activities. Apple farming was found profitable with BC ratio of 1.39. Training, technical assistance, experience, and landholding were found to have a positive influence on the apple-growing farmers. The overall productivity of apple in the area was 7.55 MT per ha, which was lower than the national average. Improper Post-harvest handling and storage facility had created a post-harvest loss of 14.33 %. Most of the produce was marketed within the district only due to lack of good roads. Lack of irrigation and insect pest attack were the major production problems whereas lack of storage and poor transportation as the major marketing problems. Increasing the frequency of extension works, technical assistance and good transport of the produce were needed to be focused.

Examine the Underlying Causes of Flexible Pavement Deteriorations, Methods of Maintenance and Pavement Condition Rating

In India, the deterioration of asphalt pavement is a major issue in the road and highway sectors. It may occur due to a variety of factors such as premature aging, improper mix design, inadequate construction, and material quality, the improper structure design of pavement considering traffic, and a lack of preventive maintenance, among others. There are many types of distress in asphalt pavements known as disintegration (raveling, and potholes), fracture (spalling and cracking), and distortion (slippage deformation of permanent). This research aims to perform a physical survey for distress analysis and pavement condition rating using the IRC method. As a case study, four urban flexible pavement roads in the Pimpri Chinchwad Pune area were chosen. The roads are visually inspected to measure the severity to detect the types and extent of the distresses. Based on the severity of the distresses, the IRC method assigns a grade of 0 to 1.0 for poor condition roads, 1.1 to 2.0 for fair condition roads, and 2.1 to 3.0 for good condition roads. As per the pavement condition rating, two of the four urban roads were found to be in fair condition, while the other two were in poor condition. The cost-effective treatments were recommended from a variety of treatments such as slurry seal, fog seal, crack seal, micro-surfacing, thin cold or hot mix bituminous overlays, and surface dressing

Innovative Strategies to Strengthen Health Service Delivery for Universal Health Coverage in Africa – A Scoping Literature Review

African nations have failed to achieve the mandate of health for all forty years after Alma Ata declaration. To achieve Universal Health Coverage (UHC), government alone are unable to solve the problems of health service delivery such as lack of good infrastructure, poor management, inter-cadre conflicts, lack of skilled birth attendants amongst others. This review assessed the involvement of non-state actors (private sector/philanthropists) in achieving UHC in Africa. We explored eight databases and search engines using specific search terms. We retrieved and conducted a detailed review of 47 publications comprising published literature and reports focused on private sector/philanthropy involvement in achieving UHC in Africa, and explored the challenges and opportunities. We included both qualitative and quantitative studies published in English. Inequity and a wide gap exist in countries’ health care service delivery due to numerous challenges such as chronic economic instability, bureaucracy, poor healthcare financing, corruption among others. Review of existing literature suggests that as Africa embarks on reforms toward UHC there is a great need for involvement of private sector/philanthropists to support government in addressing challenges facing health care system. The type of involvement revealed were; provision of infrastructure (hospital buildings/facility, good roads), technical support, technological innovations, provision of diagnostic and therapeutic equipment, financial support and other support services. This scoping review showed that private and philanthropist actors’ involvement in healthcare system have huge potentials to improve, restore and maintain health service delivery in African nations. This will accelerate progress towards the achieving UHC by 2030.

Socio-economic factors affecting training and visit system of agricultural extension among yam farmers in Eket Local Government Area of akwa ibom state, nigeria

The study broadly examined the socio-economic factors affecting training and visit system of extension among yam farmers in Eket Local Government Area of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria The study had three specific objectives, namely: to: describe the socio-economic characteristics of the yam farmer; 2 determine the socio-economic factors affecting training and visit system of extension among yam farmers and describe the problems militating against yam production in the study area. The study adopted a purposive/judgmental sampling technique to select two hundred respondents for the study. Both primary and secondary data were collected and analyzed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression and Likert scale. Data was collected through the use of a set of questionnaires administered to selected respondents. The findings of the socio-economic characteristics of the yam farmers revealed that majority 77.5% were males, with 37% of them being matured adults in the age range of 51 years and above and 66.5% of the yam farmers were married with household size of 4-7 members per family. Majority of the farmers had secondary education (55%), 46.5% had farming experience of 10 years and above with monthly farm income between N20,000 - N50,000 (46.5%). Majority 88.5% of the farmers were Christians and had monthly contact with extension agents (47%). Gender, age, religion, level of education, farm income and maritalstatus statistically and significantly affect training and visit system at 1% and 5% respectively. The major constraints faced by farmers in yam production in the study area were found to include low soil fertility (3.12), low income (2.64) and land tenure system (2.52). It is recommended that in order to improve yam production, the government of Nigeria should provide favourable environment and invest heavily in yam cultivation by providing farm inputs such as fertilizers to smallholder farmers at subsidized rates. In addition, the government should provide more loans to farmers at zero or low-interest rate. Improved extension services should be provided to farmers with new technologies in order to increase their gross margins income. Social amenities and infrastructural facilities such as; good roads network, electricity as well clean sources of water should be provided in rural areas to encourage young and educated men and women to take up yam production.
 Keywords: Agricultural Extension; Training and Visit , Communication, Farmers, Production, Demonstration

The implementation of Regional Medium Term Development Plan policy of Cianjur regency

Planning can be defined as determining the actions that will be carried out in the future with the aim of achieving what is desired. Planning is often arranged to solve a certain problem at a certain time. Planning is a continuous process, covering two aspects, namely the formulation of the plan and its implementation. Development is a process of implementing activities to make a better change as an application of a predetermined planning process. In the Cianjur Regency RPJMD 2011-2016, it is explained that the policy on public works is directed at road and bridge infrastructure programs, irrigation, water resources, building construction and rural infrastructure development. In accordance with the context of the problem to be studied, this research focuses more on road infrastructure based on tourism in South Cianjur which is expected to increase the purchasing power and welfare of the community, especially those in South Cianjur. This research uses qualitative research. A qualitative approach was chosen because it can be used to reveal and understand something behind a phenomenon that is not yet known or a phenomenon that is little known. The results showed that the implementation of the Cianjur Regency RPJMD policy was deemed not implemented properly, it was proven that good road conditions were around 36.35% and the rest was 64.65%.

Economic and functional efficiency of the digital platform of urban traffic control

The paper is devoted to the development of urban planning activities in the field of urban traffic control via the expedient economic methods for solving the problems of road congestion, in particular, using the tax on congestion. The present study includes a comprehensive analysis of economic factors and methods of economic regulation to address the issues related to traffic congestion in a modern city. It has been found that the total costs of the trip affect the individual decision concerning the method, time and route of the trip. The economic regulation of this allows the optimal value of traffic density to be achieved. The application of this approach in combination with other economic and urban-planning methods in the field of urban-planning regulation and transport planning enables to significantly reduce or completely eliminate the problem of traffic congestion on the main streets of the city. Consequently, a comprehensive economic approach to elimination of traffic congestion in Irkutsk has been developed. The effectiveness of investments in an IP video surveillance system and transport fixation is justified. The choice of time periods and sections of city roads for levying tax for maintaining good city roads is analyzed.

Standard structures of road pavements for highways of the Baikal region

A network of regional highways in the Russian Federation urgently needs good and cost-efficient road constructing materials. Obtaining such materials is possible by strengthening local soils with inorganic binders. For the purpose of efficient application of such materials in the process of structures roads and highways in the Baikal region it is necessary to develop standard structures, which take account of regional characteristics. The regulatory documents in force on the territory of the Russian Federation do not contain standard structures in which materials reinforced with inorganic binders are used. The paper discusses some results of investigation bound up with development of standard structures of road pavement using local soils of the Baikal region, which are reinforced with inorganic binders.

Evaluate the accuracy of vehicle type on road surface condition survey using roadroid application

Poor road surface conditions influence the continuity of sustainable transportation such as congestion, the assessment stages road surface conditions are by evaluating the existing road conditions. One of the pavement performance parameters that can be determined objectively is International Roughness Index (IRI). Nowadays, the cheap and reliable technology used to measure IRI value is Roadroid which is an Android application developed from a company in Sweden by using a built-in vibration sensor on a smart phone which is placed on the vehicle and the old manual method is called Surface Distress Index (SDI) which is based on visual observations using the RCS method. With the variation of flexible and rigid pavement consist of good and bad road conditions and using motorcycle, sedan and sport utility vehicle, it is found that the correlation between the IRI value using Roadroid and SDI value using visual observation shows high correlation where the highest r2 values by using Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV) compare to small car and motorcycle. It concludes that Roadroid can be used as database for road maintenance planning purposes.

The Relationship Between Frequency of Accident and Roads Geometric Design Consistency in NTB Province

Investigate and measure the relationship between accident frequencies and the consistency of road geometric designs. Methodology: Several accident prediction models from straight section, curve section, and road segment data from variables that combine design consistency. Poisson and negative binomial regression approaches are used for model development. The model obtained can later be used as a quantitative tool for evaluating the impact of design consistency on road safety. From the model obtained, from all the results of the model, it was decided to use the model of negative binomial regression because the model has proven to be undispersed, so that the model results obtained are better than poisson regression. Obtained the final model with exponential and power forms. In addition, the model of the combined data results represents more existing field data, this is caused by several factors that can affect these results. Then, it was found that the model obtained could consider design consistency so that the model could identify inconsistencies better and accurately reflect the resulting impact on safety. Many road conditions in Indonesia are still incompatible with existing geometric road design standards. Consistency in the geometric design of the road must be considered, given that all elements in the geometric design of the road have an influence on the number of accidents that occur on the road. So more consideration is needed for new roads that are designed according to existing standards so as to produce a good road, hoping to reduce the number of accidents that occur significantly.

Mapping and Analysis of the Temporal Changes of Road Traffic Accident Hotspots Using GIS and Remote Sensing in Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

The accident rates per vehicle in Nigeria are alarmingly high. The traffic condition in the city of Owerri is no different. The traffic accidents are predictable and can be avoided by improving preventions. These pose a lot of concern in Owerri Municipal Council and its environs of Imo State, Nigeria because road traffic accident has done more harm than good in the city, it has led to loss of lives and properties, severe injuries and pains and above all it has deteriorated the socio-economic growth and development of the city. This paper is aimed at mapping and analysis of the temporal changes of road traffic accident hotspots using GIS and Remote Sensing in Owerri Municipal Council and its environs in Imo State, Nigeria. The methodology adopted was the GIS method of Digitization/Data conversion, Creation of relational database table of road traffic accident hotspots records and performance of GIS analysis such as spatial queries, buffering operation and spatial overlay using Arc GIS 10.3 and Infoterra satellite imagery of 0.5 resolution. Test of hypothesis using Chi-Square was also used to analyze the data obtained from social survey (questionnaires) . Result showed that there was an increase in road traffic accidents (RTAs), RTDs, RTIs and Car damages in 2017 than in 2016. Depression and Careless Driving, Over-speeding, night driving and impatience and were the major Human factors that contributed to the cause of the road accidents in 2017. Vehicle with bad tyres and no speed limits contributed to road accidents. Tarred and pothole roads and Driving during Rainy Season were observed to be the highest Road factor that contributed to the cause of accidents. Hotspot cluster was along Owerri-OkigweRaodat IMSU junction. It was recommended that there should be good quality roads and the bad ones should be frequently maintained; people should be made to know the importance of Safe Landing when driving; Speed limit control/gadgets should be made compulsory, every vehicle found without speed limit gadgets should be penalized; there should be strict adherence and enforcement of road safety measures and rules on road users and drivers, defaulters should be heavily penalized and punished. The Digital map, the results obtained in both queries and SPSS were shown in digital thematic maps, tabular data and charts respectively.

Numerical modeling of transport roads in open pit mines

Transport of overburden and mineral raw materials in surface mining is one of the most complex and costly processes today. Good transport roads are essential for successful transportation by trucks in open pit mines. Poor design, and maintenance of the roads has the greatest impact on the high transport costs and possible risks in terms of security. Numerical modeling was performed to analyze the effects of the properties of the built-in materials used in the construction of roads, the thickness of the layers and the interaction of tires with the road surface. The distribution of stress and strain determined in the construction of a road depends on the characteristics of the road and the structure and mass of the truck. For this reason, numerical modeling and computer simulation is considered a very suitable method in the design of roads, because in a short period of time and at a lower cost calculations for the construction of a large number of models can be implemented and the best model available will be chosen. The most favorable construction will be considered to be the one that will, at minimum construction costs and with low costs of maintenance, enable the efficient use of transport equipment for a longer period of exploitation.

Determinants of subjective wellbeing in rural communities: Evidence from the Juaben Municipality, Ghana

This paper explores the determinants of subjective wellbeing in rural communities in Ghana. Using data collected from 310 households from ten rural communities in the Juaben Municipality in Ghana, we investigate the factors that influence subjective wellbeing among residents as well as formulate a model to measure happiness using the OLS and ordinal probit regression models. The study shows that happiness for rural residents, just like in urban areas, is multidimensional and depends on household characteristics. The findings indicate that self-reported happiness varied significantly with gender, marital status, religious background, occupation and source of employment as well as settlement type. Based on the model formulated, the study further found that the average level of happiness in the study communities was 4.79 on a scale of 0–10. The results of the ordinal regression indicate that respondents employed in the public service are happier than those who are self-employed. The transportation dimension was ranked as the most significant dimension basically because of the poor condition of the roads to these villages. The paper therefore recommends the improvement of the major roads in rural areas as good roads tend to contribute substantially to the overall wellbeing of rural dwellers in Ghana.

Factors Influencing the Quality of Primary Healthcare Services in Southern Senatorial District of Cross River State, Nigeria

Background: The aim of this study is to determine the factors influencing the quality of primary healthcareservices in southern senatorial district of Cross River State, Nigeria.Materials and Method: A cross sectional descriptive study design with both qualitative and quantitativemethod of data collection was used. Donabedian’s structure, process and outcome model guided the researchprotocol. Ethical clearance for the study was obtained from Cross River State Ministry of Health EthicsCommittee. Two semi-structured questionnaires and a Focus Group Discussion Guide were used for datacollection. Four hundred and eighty clients and 144 healthcare providers from 12 primary healthcare centresin the study area were selected by simple random sampling method. Statistical package for social sciencesversion 20.0 was used to analyze the quantitative data while thematic coding was used to analyse thequalitative data.Results: The major structure factors mitigating the quality of care as observed by the healthcare providersinclude insufficient manpower 58(40.28%), lack of basic amenities (light, water supply and good road)58(40.28%), insufficient equipment 26(18.06%), insecurity and communal crises 22(15.28%). Theperceptions of the clients were similar to that of the healthcare providers. In terms of process factors; poorattitude of some healthcare providers and clients was the main response of healthcare professionals. Thequalitative results were similar to that of quantitative. All the basic primary health care services (includinghealth education, health promotion, environmental sanitation, immunization, reproductive health, nutrition,HIV/AIDS and oral care) were provided in the selected health centres except mental health.Conclusions: The quality of healthcare services in the southern senatorial district,Cross River State, Nigeria,is affected by structure and process factors of the Donabedian’s model.

Dynamics of Biogens to Estimate Ecological State of Coastal Waters of Southern Baikal

The issue of biogenic pollution of the coastal waters of Lake Baikal has been considered, an inventory of their sources performed, and an ecological estimation of the coast anthropogenic pollution factors given, which, in turn, indicate the increased content of biogens in coastal waters and, according to scholars, affect the growth of spirogyra (Spirogyra Link and Stigeoclonium Ktz).The studies performed have covered the southern coast of Lake Baikal from Kultuk Bay to Novosnezhnaya settlement since it is the most populated area with developed infrastructure, and the alluvial-accumulative coast has excellent beaches and good access roads to them. To estimate the biogen ingress, studies have been performed in the summer months (navigation season) and in March (ice period). The actual research results are represented in tabular and graphic material.The own research results have shown that the biogen content is rather significant; it is high during the ice period. The intake of domestic wastewater is supported by the high content of biogens in samples taken at the water’s edge also during the ice period. In summer, the biogen content in coastal waters may be higher than in the ice period, however, due to the navigation season currents, their concentrations are ‘washed out’.