Good Fruit Set Research Articles

Pollen and seed fertility of the male fertile lines having the fertility restorer gene in three CMS systems of eggplant

In our previous study, three pollen non-formation type cytoplasmic male-sterility (CMS) systems of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) were developed through repeated backcrossing, by using wild Solanum species S. aethiopicum L. Aculeatum Group, S. anguivi and S. grandifolium as the cytoplasm donor and eggplant ‘Uttara’ as the recurrent pollen parent. Each CMS system has male fertile line which carries the fertility restorer genes for the pollen non-formation type sterility. In the present study, pollen and seed fertility of the male fertile lines were studied to find out the possibilities of selfing and anther culture for the development of homozygous restorer and male-sterile lines. To confirm the utility of these methods we tried to apply the method of selfing and anther culture of the male fertile lines. Pollen fertility was assessed by pollen stainability in acetocarmine, in Lugol's solution and in vitro germination rate of pollen at three different stages of pollen maturation, such as, 2 days before anthesis, at anthesis and 2 days after anthesis. Pollen stainability with acetocarmine and in vitro germination rate of pollen in all three stages of pollen maturation were comparatively lower in the male fertile lines than eggplant ‘Uttara’. At anthesis, pollen stainability was about 50% and in vitro pollen germination was less than 20% in three male fertile lines. Pollen stainability with Lugol's solution revealed that the low pollen fertility of the male fertile lines would be caused by incomplete accumulation and degradation of starch during pollen maturation. The male fertile lines showed good fruit set percentage and produced an adequate amount of seeds in selfing and backcrossing. A restorer line homozygous for the fertility restorer gene with the cytoplasm of S. anguivi was developed by selfing and selection of the male fertile line. A doubled haploid male sterile and male fertile plants were obtained from anther culture of the male fertile lines with the cytoplasms of S. anguivi and S. grandifolium, respectively. Pollen and seed fertility study of the present study revealed that homozygous restorer and male-sterile lines could be developed by selfing and anther culture of the male fertile lines of eggplant.

Sexual compatibility of the olive cultivar ‘Kalamata’ assessed by paternity analysis

Paternity analysis was used to assess the self-incompatibility of the olive (Olea europaea L.) cultivar ‘Kalamata’ and to identify some compatible pollenisers under a Mediterranean-type climate. Eight microsatellite markers were used for genotyping three ‘Kalamata’ mother trees, 120 embryos, and all potential pollen donors. The identified alleles were analysed using FaMoz software and showed that ‘Kalamata’ was highly self-incompatible. Only three ‘Kalamata’ embryos were assigned to ‘Kalamata’ self-fertilisation, even though it was the most available pollen donor. The alleles were also analysed using NTSYS-pc (version 2.02 k) software and identified 54 potential pollen donors in the study site; however, not all of them were located within the effective pollination distance of the mother trees (30 m in olive). According to the results of this study, ‘Kalamata’ (as a host) was compatible with ‘Barnea’, ‘Benito’, and ‘Katsourela’ (six ‘Kalamata’ embryos assigned in each) but incompatible with ‘Arbequina’, ‘Azapa’, and ‘Picual’ (zero ‘Kalamata’ embryos assigned in each). The olive growers could use some of these compatible pollenisers with ‘Kalamata’ to guarantee good fruit set.

Investigations on fertilization biology and description of fruit characteristics of some persimmon (Diospyros kaki) cultigens

Persimmon is a fruit that has increasing importance on export and prefer to be consumed because its taste, nutrient content and appearance. It can be grown at different ecological conditions without discerning climate and soil. In this sense, it is important to encourage persimmon cultivation. Pollinators need to be used for a good fruit set on cultural varieties. In this study that prepared from this point of view, fertilization biology, phenological and pomological observations were performed on Hachiya and Fuji cultivars that pollinated with different male types in OdemiAŸ/Izmir-Turkey. Additionally, viability (TTC and IKI) and germination tests were carried out. Consequently, it was observed that fruit set increased when pollinators were used. Key words: Persimmon, pollination, fruit characteristics, phenology, pomology.

Flowering time and incompatibility groups: Cultivar combination in commercial sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchards

The paper presents results of eight-year study (1999-2006) of flowering phenophase in 21 introduced sweet cherry cultivars grown under the agro-environmental conditions of West Serbia. Flowering time, as well as progress and abundance of flowering were studied, and classification of the studied cultivars according to flowering time was derived. On the basis of mean several-year overlap in phenophase of full flowering and on the grounds of so far known data on classification of these cultivars among incompatibility groups, we have offered a recommendation for their cultivation in orchards whereby the most effective pollination and fertilization can be ensured as well as good fruit-set and satisfactory fruit yields.

Caracterização molecular dos alelos-S de incompatibilidade gametofítica em Prunus salicina Lindl.

Pomares comerciais de ameixeira-japonesa devem conter pelo menos duas cultivares para obter boa fertilização, devido à presença do sistema de incompatibilidade gametofítica, que inibe a autofecundação da grande maioria das cultivares. No presente trabalho, buscou-se identificar e caracterizar molecularmente os alelos-S de 11 cultivares de ameixeira-japonesa (Prunus salicina Lindl.) e verificar a compatibilidade entre os genótipos avaliados. As cultivares Santa Rosa, Santa Rita, Reubennel, Pluma 7, América, Rosa Mineira, Amarelinha, The First, Gulfblaze (Clone São Paulo), Gulfblaze (Clone Guaiba) e Harry Pickstone foram analisadas por meio de Reação em Cadeia da Polimerase (PCR) com três pares de iniciadores específicos para alelos-S. As condições da PCR utilizadas, bem como as combinações de iniciadores, permitiram a identificação de alelos-S nas cultivares de P. salicina estudadas, bem como a indicação dos polinizadores mais compatíveis com algumas das principais cultivares utilizadas na produção de frutas. O sequenciamento de alguns dos alelos-S amplificados revelou elevada similaridade com sequências de nucleotídeos já identificados em outros trabalhos com Prunus spp.. Entretanto, a obtenção de sequências completas de maior número de alelos-S faz-se necessária para o estabelecimento de uma relação de identidade precisa entre os mesmos.

Southern Highbush Blueberry Production in High Tunnels: Temperatures, Development, Yield, and Fruit Quality During the Establishment Years

Growers interested in producing early, high-quality, southern highbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) in high tunnels face a lack of information regarding appropriate cultural methods. We sought to elucidate the optimal date to close high tunnels to hasten vegetative and reproductive growth of organic southern highbush blueberry cultivars Emerald and Jewel grown in Georgia. The three dates selected to close the high tunnels were 15 Dec., 2 Jan., and 16 Jan. High tunnels raised soil and daytime air temperatures during winter months, but the tunnels did not retain heat at night and did not provide freeze protection without the use of propane heaters. The high tunnel microclimate advanced both vegetative and reproductive growth compared with outdoor plants. Averaged over the 2-year study, the 15 Dec. tunnel closure advanced flower initiation by 38 days for ‘Emerald’ and 39 days for ‘Jewel’ compared with outdoor control plants. Synchronization of flowering of the two cultivars was poor in 2007 when ‘Emerald’ flowered much earlier than ‘Jewel’ and much better in 2008. In 2007, flower and fruit development of ‘Jewel’ were faster than that of ‘Emerald’ with Jewel going from the appearance of individual flowers to ripe fruit in 80 days as compared with 105 days for ‘Emerald’. Total yield was strongly correlated with fruit set (r = 0.94). ‘Emerald’ fruit contained higher concentrations of soluble solids and anthocyanins than ‘Jewel’ fruit, and anthocyanin concentrations increased throughout the harvest period. No fruit matured in 2008 as a result of freeze damage. The biggest obstacle for high tunnel production of southern highbush blueberries appears to be preventing freeze damage and assuring pollination. Cost-effective freeze protection and ways to promote good fruit set will be critical to successful production of early southern highbush blueberries in high tunnels.

Rainfall probability during dormant and growing seasons of apple in Himachal Pradesh

Variation of seasonal rainfall and probabilities of occurrence of assured weekly rainfall provide useful information for efficient agricultural management. In the present study, seven stations of Himachal Pradesh have been selected for the analysis of the rainfall data. In general, the station Dalhousie received the higher rainfall during both the growing and dormant seasons along with annual rainfall. Probability percentage of receiving 10 mm, 20 mm, 50 mm and 75 mm rainfall have been computed for standard weeks during growing and dormant seasons at four stations Katrain, Bajaura, Mashobra and Nauni (Solan). A critical examination for spatial and temporal probability distribution revealed that high rainfall belt is located in the north western part of the state. For better apple production, monsoon rainfall plays significant role. It not only moderates the temperature during summer but also recharges the muchneeded moisture, which almost depletes by mid June. Well distributed winter rains and early snowfall before January are beneficial in providing chilling, optimal flowering and good fruit set.

POLLINATION, POLLEN TUBE GROWTH AND DETERMINATION OF SUITABLE POLLINIZER FOR SWEET CHERRY (PRUNUS AVIUM L.) CULTIVAR GHERMEZ REZAEIEH

Sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) is one of the most important temperate fruits in the world. Most sweet cherry cultivars are self-incompatible and have usually problem with fertilization and fruit set, so they need suitable pollinizer for good fruit setting and commercial yield. The present study was carried out on sweet cherry cultivar Ghermez Rezaeieh as seed parent tree and Zarde daneshkadeh, Protiva, Sorati Lavasan, Haj-Yosefi and Meshkinshahr cultivars as pollen parent trees. Treatments (Pollens) were applied in randomized complete blocks design (RCBD) with three replicates. All laboratory and microscopic examinations of the collected samples were carried out in the Department of Horticultural Science, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU), Tehran, Iran and Controlled hybridization and pollination performed in the Seed and Plant Improvement Institute (SPII), collection orchard at Kamalabad, Karaj during 2004 and 2005 growing seasons. In order to determine the compatibility or incompatibility of various pollens on Ghermez Rezaeieh two methods were used: controlled pollination and examination of pollen tube growth with fluorescence microscopy. The results based on controlled pollination showed that MeshkinShahr and Protiva cultivars are compatible and Zarde daneshkadeh, Sorati Lavasan and Haj-Yosefi are incompatible cultivars with Ghermez Rezaeieh. The mean of fruit set in Ghermez Rezaehe cultivar with use of pollen grains of Zarde daneshkadeh, Protiva, Sorati Lavasan, Haj-Yosefi and Meshkinshahr were 0.54, 40.49, 0.24, ,0.80 and 61.36 percent respectively .The results also showed that sweet cherry cv. Ghermez Rezaeieh is a self-incompatible cultivar (fruit set=0) and it needs compatible and suitable pollinizer for fruit set. The results based on microscopic examinations showed that pollen tube of Meshkinshahr cultivar reached into the Ghermez Rezaeieh ovary flowers in 96 hours after pollination. These microscopic examinations and observations confirmed the obtained results from controlled hybridization in garden. In conclusion, Protiva and Meshkinshahr were selected as the best pollinizers for Ghermez Rezaeieh cultivar

(234) Aesculus Pollen Viability and Longevity under Frozen Storage

The genus Aesculus (buckeyes and/or horsechestnuts) is composed of 13 species and a number of interspecific hybrids. Pollen from 11 genotypes from five Aesculus species and the hybrid Aesculus ×carnea were used to develop an in-vitro germination test to evaluate pollen viability under various storage treatments. This test was optimized using samples of both fresh pollen and pollen that had been stored up to 1 year. The most effective medium contained 20% sucrose, 100 mg·L-1 H2BO3, 150 mg·L-1 Ca(NO3)2, and 1% agar. The highest germination percentage was observed at 15 °C across all storage treatments. Fresh pollen germinated in excess of 80% over a wide range of germination temperatures. Based on this, all specimens studied would be good pollen parents. The differences in pollen germination between storage at -20 and -80 °C were nonsignificant, but the duration of the storage period was highly significant. At 3 months, viability remained above 60% for four of the six species/hybrid tested. However, at 12 months, all pollen tested dropped below the threshold for good fruit set based on in-vitro pollen germination. Based on these observations, short-term pollen storage may permit crosses between parents with temporally separate flowering phenologies. However, conventional storage procedures are inadequate to maintain pollen collected from a male parent for crosses in subsequent growing seasons.

Differential Response of Cushaw Squash (Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber) Lines, Hybrids, and Landraces in Spring versus Fall Culture in Sonora, Mexico

Cushaw squash is cultivated in northwest Mexico mainly during the fall and to a lesser degree in the spring season, in which a lack of fruit production in experimental and commercial materials has been observed. This work was done to test 12 lines, 16 hybrids and six landraces regarding fruit and seed weight, flesh color, and soluble solids content (SSC) in both spring and fall seasons in year 2002. Estimates of fruit and seed yield were done. The crop was established by direct seeding at 0.5-m spacing between plants, on both sides of furrow-irrigated beds measuring 15 m long and 4 m wide. In the spring, fruit weight changed from 2.7 to 4.7 kg and seed weight from 17 to 118 g/fruit; fruit yield varied from 3.2 to 38.8 t·ha-1 and seed yield from 18 to 1131 kg·ha-1. Thirty-two percent of the genotypes, including lines and hybrids, but not landraces, were fruitless. SSC and flesh color had values from 4% to 7.5% and from 5.22 to 6.94 Y, respectively. For the fall culture all the genotypes showed good fruit set. Fruit weight in this season changed from 0.8 to 3 kg and seed weight from 22.3 to 97 g/fruit; fruit and seed yield varied from 4 to 28 t·ha-1 and from 135 to 923 kg·ha-1, respectively. All of the landraces were severely infected with squash leaf curl virus and had very low yields. SSC and flesh color, in this season, had values from 3.6% to 10.4% and from 5.1 to 7.94 Y, respectively.

HOW TO REDUCE YIELD FLUCTUATIONS IN SWEET PEPPER?

ISHS XXVI International Horticultural Congress: Protected Cultivation 2002: In Search of Structures, Systems and Plant Materials for Sustainable Greenhouse Production HOW TO REDUCE YIELD FLUCTUATIONS IN SWEET PEPPER?

Pollen germination of cherimoya ( Annona cherimola Mill.). : In vivo characterization and optimization of in vitro germination

Cherimoya ( Annona cherimola Mill.) is a subtropical fruit tree highly dependent on pollination and in most parts of the world hand pollination is a common agricultural practice. However, erratic results following hand pollination have often been associated with low pollen viability. In spite of this dependence on good pollen viability, a good method to evaluate pollen viability is not yet available. This deficiency may be related to the fact that little is known about pollen germination occurring in vivo. In this work pollen germination is first characterised in vivo and the temperature effect on pollen germination evaluated. Subsequently, a medium for pollen germination has been optimized and the conditions for in vitro pollen germination determined. Mature pollen is trinucleated and is shed from the anther in tetrads. Upon pollen hydration, either on the stigma or in the germination medium, pollen is liberated from the tetrad. While the kinetics of the process are quicker in vitro, both processes occur rapidly and are completed within 2 h in vitro and within 5 h in vivo. Pollen germination is optimum at 20–25°C, that is the same temperature required for good fruit set in the orchard. Pollen requires prehydration prior to in vitro germination and it only germinates when the stamens are also added to the medium, that requires the provision of calcium and boron as well as sucrose at 5–10%. Provided these factors are taken into account, pollen germination can reach levels similar to the ones attained in vivo.

Artificial hybridization in the Hawaiian endemic genus Labordia (Loganiaceae)

Cross-pollinations were performed within and among eight species of Labordia from Oahu, Molokai, and Hawaii, and one species from Guam of the closely related genus Geniostoma. Detailed floral examination confirmed that the species are functionally dioecious, i.e., a given individual lacks either ovules or pollen grains. Female inflorescences bagged to prevent pollination never produced seed, but intraspecific crosses between male and female individuals nearly always yielded fruits with viable seed (>80%). Interspecific crosses between species from different islands and separate taxonomic sections of the genus also yielded good fruit set (>55%). Interspecific F1 hybrids were vigorous and appeared to be morphologically intermediate to their parents. Intergeneric crosses between Geniostoma and Labordia failed. Chromosome counts from Labordia species were found to be 2n = 80 or 2n =~80, twice the chromosome complement of two collections examined from its postulated ancestor, Geniostoma rupestre. Labordia species are distinct morphologically, ecologically, and geographically but apparently lack genetic barriers to interbreeding. This suggests that geographical and ecological isolation, recentness of colonization, and/or rapid speciation have been important factors in the origin of species of Labordia.

Parthenocarpic Fruit Set in Summer Squash

Low temperatures typical of early season production promote female sex expression and reduce male flower formation in summer squash. In addition, some summer squash cultivars do not produce sufficient male flowers for good fruit set early in the season in New York. Parthenocarpic fruit set could increase early season yield as well as at times when bee activity is restricted by wet weather or by row covers. More than 30 Cucurbita pepo cultivars and breeding lines were evaluated for their ability to produce parthenocarpic fruit over the past 3 years. Pistillate flowers were closed before anthesis to prevent pollination. In 1992, 66% of all the entries set parthenocarpic fruit where as 40% displayed the same pattern in 1993 and 81% in 1994. Varieties with the best parthenocarpic fruit set included Black Beauty, Black Magic, Black Jack, and Chefini Hybrid, all zucchini types. Most yellow-fruited cultivars had poor fruit set but the precocious yellow cultivar Gold Rush had good parthenocarpic fruit set in 1992 and 1993. In 1994, floating row covers placed over the plants 1 week after planting confirmed the results of the previous two seasons. This indicates that certain varieties of summer squash consistently set parthenocarpic fruit. These varieties may be most useful for early season production or for production under plastic tunnels or row covers where pollinator activity is restricted. In addition, our results indicate that it is possible to breed parthenocarpic squash of different fruit colors and types.

GIBBERELLIC ACID ENHANCES FRUIT SET OF PHYSICALLY DAMAGED BLUEBERRY FLOWERS

Rabbiteye blueberry (Vaccinium ashei R.) flowers often suffer slight freeze damage that prevents fertilization and fruit development. To determine if gibberellic acid (GA3) might be useful in rescuing freeze-damaged flowers the following treatments were applied before anthesis to two cultivars at different locations: 1) undamaged control, 2) approximately two-thirds of the corolla and most of the style removed, 3) approximately half of the style removed, and 4) ovules lanced with an insect pin by driving it through the equator of the undeveloped berry until the point came out the other side. Half the bushes were not sprayed, and half were sprayed with GA3 (312 ppm, v/v) the night following treatment. `Climax' at Chula, Ga., had good fruit set for treatment 1 with and without GA3 (70% to 85%). Good fruit set also occurred for treatment 2, 3, and 4 where GA3 was applied (47% to 54%), but poor fruit set without GA3 (4% to 16%). `Tifblue' at Chula had significantly better fruit set for treatment 1 with GA3 (54% vs. 27%). Excellent fruit set occurred for treatment 2, 3, and 4 where GA3 was applied (81% to 96%), and poor fruit set without GA3 (6% to 7%). `Tifblue' fruit set by GA3 sized better than `Climax' fruit set by GA3. The experiments provide corroborative evidence that flowers that have suffered freeze damage to the stigma, style, corolla, and perhaps ovules can be set with GA3.

Delaying Anthesis of Staminate Pistachio with Paclobutrazol

Anthesis of an important staminate pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) cultivar (B) in Greece was delayed by foliar paclobutrazol (PBZ) sprays applied in June or July the previous season. A September spray was ineffective. The amount of delay depended on dose (50 to 1000 mg PBZ/liter applied to incipient runoff). Using the same total amount of chemical, one spray was as effective as two sprays 1 month apart. There were no effects on inflorescence fresh weight, pollen production, and pollen germination. Stem elongation was inhibited strongly, but the number of nodes and flower buds per shoot was reduced only slightly. In Expt. 2, two other staminate cultivars (A and C) responded similarly to cultivar B. Treatment effects appeared only during the treatment year, whereas a soil drench was effective for 2 years. PBZ may be able to synchronize the blooming of staminate and distillate pistachio cultivars and result in good fruit set without artificial pollination. Chemical name used: B[(4-chlorophenyl)methyl] -α-(1,1 dimethylethyl)-l H -1,2,4-triazole-l-ethanol (paclobutrazol).

Yield Potential and Vegetative Growth of Summer-planted Strawberry

The waiting-bed (WB) system has the potential to significantly increase the length of the strawberry (Fragaria Xananassa Duch.) production season. In the WB phase of this system the plants were deblossomed and runners were removed to stimulate the production of a multiple crowned plant. The objective of this study was to examine the influence of planting date and cultivar on yield potential and vegetative growth of the strawberry plants in the WB and cropping beds (CB). Experiments were conducted in Ontario and Quebec. Early establishment of the WB favored the production of large multicrown plants. `Kent' appeared to be the best cultivar among five tested due to the many berries produced because of good fruit set. Yield potential was not realized in late-planted CB. The highest yields per plant (273 g) were obtained in Quebec with plants from the earliest WB. Yields in CB decreased with later plantings due to stress of transplanting when air and soil temperatures were high. Berry count was identified as the yield component most affected by the later planting date of the CB. The WB system has potential for season extension in strawberry, but WB must be established early in the season to encourage the development of a plant with high yield potential.

Floral biology in relation to hand pollination of white yam

Flowering behaviour and the morphology of flowers in white yam,Dioscorea rotundata Poir. is described in relation to hand pollination. Plants flowered between June and September with flowering intensity depending largely on factors associated with shoot vigour in genotypes. The high predominance of male plants coupled with irregular flowering necessitate the establishment of many plants to ensure sufficient flowering individuals for a hybridization programme. In order to achieve good fruit set and seed yields, pollen should be collected from open male flowers around 14.00 h and mature female flowers pollinated within a week after they are bagged particularly during the early flowering months. Low fruit set in white yam (12%) is primarily due to inefficient pollination by insects. With hand pollination fruit set is improved three-fold.

Combining Ability for Fruit Set, Flower Drop, and Underdeveloped Ovaries in Some Heat-tolerant Tomatoes1

Abstract Seven tomato genotypes (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill) were crossed in all except reciprocal combinations in a diallel test for heat tolerance. S6916 had the highest general combining ability (GCA) value for heat tolerance, indicating that it transmitted good fruit setting abilty at high temperatures to its progeny. BL6807 had the second highest GCA value for fruit set but also transmitted underdeveloped ovaries. L401 had the lowest GCA value for fruit set. Additive gene action was more important than nonadditive effects for fruit set, flower drop, and underdeveloped ovaries at high temperatures.

SEX DIFFERENCES AND FLOWERING PHENOLOGY IN THE COMMON FIG, FICUS CARICA L.

The symbiotic relationship between fig plants (Ficus species) and their tiny pollinating wasps has fascinated biologists since classical times, when Aristotle and Theophrastus mentioned the connection between an abundance of wasps and a good fruit set in the common fig, Ficus carica L. The complex reproductive biology of Ficus species in general and of F. carica in particular has been described many times, and we will not repeat here details of floral morphology, pollination or insect structure and behavior (see Condit, 1947; Valdeyron, 1964, 1967; Galil and Eisikowitch, 1968a, 1968b, 1969, 1974; Ramirez, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1977; Hill, 1967; Galil, 1973, 1977; Storey, 1955, 1975, 1976; Galil and Neeman, 1977). After a description of some general features of the symbiotic relationship between Ficus species and wasps, we will concentrate on the differences between male and female plants of F. carica in their sexual performance and in the phenology of development of the syconia. The evolutionary origin of the separate sexes in F. carica and related species and the selective forces responsible for the characters of the various crops produced by the two sexes are considered in detail for the first time. The pollinators of the approximately 1000 species of Ficus are symbiotic wasps of the family Agaonidae (order Hymenoptera). The symbiosis is highly specific; Grandi (1929), Wiebes (1963), Hill (1967) and Ramirez (1970, 1974) have shown that in the great majority of investigated species in both the Old and New Worlds, each Ficus species is pollinated by one agaonid wasp which is confined to that species. The pollinator of F. carica, for example, is Blastophaga psenes L. In a few cases, one fig species hosts two wasp species or a wasp pollinates a few closely related Ficus species. The relationship between the reproduction of the tree and that of the insect is mutually obligatory, since pollen can be transferred to the enclosed female flowers only by the pollinator, and the wasps depend on the figs for their reproductive sites. The inflorescence of Ficus is a syconium, an enlarged urn-shaped peduncle bearing uniovulate pistillate flowers and staminate flowers on the inner surface. The female flowers reach anthesis several weeks before the male flowers of the same syconium. This pronounced protogyny prevents fertilization between pollen and ovules in one syconium. After copulation, adult female wasps become loaded with pollen and leave the syconia in which they developed. They then enter young receptive syconia by forcing their way between the bracts lining the apical orifice (ostiole). Once a wasp has entered a syconium, it cannot fly to another one. Within the syconium, a female wasp pollinates many female flowers and also inserts its ovipositor in the stylar canals of female flowers, in attempts to lay an egg in the ovule of each flower. The female flowers of a Ficus species vary markedly in style length; all female flowers are capable of being fertilized and producing seeds, but only short-styled flowers are suitable for egg laying. The longer styles prevent oviposition and many longstyled flowers are usually fertilized if a wasp carries pollen. The separation of