Golf Performance Research Articles

A flexible mixed model for age-dependent performance: application to golf

Abstract We present a new mixed linear model for the relationship between age and performance. The model allows for random effects at the nodes of a barycentric interpolation, such that performance evolves with age in a non-prescriptive way. We use the model to investigate the effects of age on performance in golf and find that performance peaks in the 30s and then declines after that. We disaggregate performance into its constituent components and find that driving, which tends to require power and speed, deteriorates consistently from the early 20s, whilst putting, which requires touch and finesse, remains strong until the late 40s. Our model can be used in other settings, and requires only that measures of performance exist.

Experience with a medium chain triglyceride complex and changes in mental focus and score in different modes of golf transport and play

Medium Chain Triglyceride (MCT)- based supplements have increased cognitive function in general and specific functional realms. Can an MCT complex improve mental focus in sports with a high, active cognitive component? This pilot investigation tested whether the proprietary MCT complex utilized could result in positive gains in mental focus or perception of enhanced energy on the course. Each of the ten subjects played a 9-hole round using a motor cart, pushcart, carry bag, or electric trolley (which simulated playing with a caddie) while wearing a portable metabolic system to determine baseline energy expenditure, mental focus, and score baseline. Data points recorded and averaged included the volume of oxygen used per minute total (VO2/L/min), oxygen used per kg of body weight per minute (VO2ml/kg/min), converted to kcal per hour, and heart rate. A 10-point mental focus scale had golfers rating tee shots, second through fourth shots, and the short game from 100 yards in. Using their preferred mode of transport and play, the subjects completed one more, 9-hole round after once-daily consumption of the supplement for seven days. The average rating of mental focus and perceived energy increased from a level of 5.77 to 7.22 out of 10, statistically significant at P= 0.0120. Actual play scores decreased from 10.8 to 8.9 over par for the 9-hole rounds, trending positively. This initial trial suggests that a proprietary MCT complex can improve actual golf performance and the golfer's perceptions of focus and energy regardless of which mode of transport and play is used.

The Relationship between Ground Reaction Forces, Foot Positions and Type of Clubs Used in Golf: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: Despite the growing interest in golf, the impact of motion control strategy on golf performance may be uncertain. A network meta-analysis was conducted to investigate the relationships between ground reaction force (GRF), foot positions, and club types in golf and determine whether different clubs have a different impact when swinging. Methods: Three databases were searched from the time of inception to March 2023. Eligibility criteria included studies that provided data using a driver to swing and compared outcomes to control data. Results: Searches yielded 6527 studies. Seven studies met the selection criteria (n = 422 participants). The results showed that an iron 6 is the best when considering the trail foot vertical ground reaction force (TVGRF), trail foot anteroposterior ground reaction force (TAGRF), and lead foot vertical ground reaction force (LVGRF). The pitching wedge was the best in the lead foot mediolateral ground reaction force (LMGRF) and lead foot anteroposterior ground reaction force (LAGRF). Iron 7 was the best in the trail foot mediolateral ground reaction force (TMGRF), and the lead foot was larger than the trail foot to the vertical GRF. Discussion: The study found that clubs may influence a player’s posture and swing power because golf clubs are available in various lengths and shapes. The lead foot generates a larger GRF than the trail foot; three-dimensional GRFs differ among golf clubs. When a golfer aims to maximize the distance of their drives, they must generate relatively more resultant horizontal reaction force (RFH). Golfers often use different clubs to achieve optimal performance on the course by controlling their motion. However, there needs to be a focus on the quality of the included studies because the sample size was too small, increasing the risk of bias associated with the results.

Integrating strength and conditioning training and golf practice during the golf season: Approaches and perceptions of highly skilled golfers

Contemporary evidence has demonstrated strength and conditioning (S&C) training benefits golf performance, primarily by improving clubhead speed. However, no empirical data exist that describe how, or even if, golfers integrate their S&C training and golf practice. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the perceptions and practices of skilled golfers with regards to planning the season and how S&C is structured in the golf year. Sixty-five (male n = 48; female n = 17) Category 1 amateur (n = 50) and professional (n = 15) golfers completed a mixed-methods online survey. Survey answers were either golf practice or S&C training focused. Results showed the majority of golfers engage with S&C training (n = 44; 67.7%) and follow a programme (n = 53. 81.5%). Contrastingly, they reported having little structure for golf practice, choosing to have no annual plan (n = 14; 21.9%), have a reactive approach (n = 22. 34.9%) based on recent performances or training what feels appropriate/enjoyable (n = 15; 23.8%). Golfers reported they adjust their training around competition (n = 47; 74.6%) but with various approaches. The dichotomous and contradictory responses received across multiple answers demonstrate that continued education and research are required to help golfers integrate S&C training with their golf practice.

Centre of pressure golf swing movement strategies are better defined using a continuous approach than by segregated styles

ABSTRACT The relationships between movement style and golf performance have been well researched, but the premise of segregated movement styles has not been fully examined. The purpose of this investigation was to examine the postulation that centre of pressure data are not best described by segregated styles but instead by a continuum and to determine relationships between centre of pressure, handicap and clubhead speed using a continuous approach. Centre of pressure paths of driver and 5-iron shots from 104 amateur golfers were analysed using discrete and continuous methods. Discrete methods used different cluster evaluation criteria which result in two-cluster and twenty-cluster solutions being considered “optimum”. The two-cluster solution showed the characteristics of “front-foot” and “reverse” centre of pressure styles. However, a continuous principal component analysis method revealed that the clusters were not well separated and provided support for a multidimensional continuum. The principal components had a high correlation with handicap and clubhead speed. Lower handicap and higher swing speed golfers tended to display a centre of pressure with a “front-foot” style and a fast transition towards the front foot at the start of the downswing. A continuous characterisation of centre of pressure styles has more utility than the segregated styles previously described.

Monitoring Performance in Golf: More Than Just Clubhead Speed

ABSTRACT In the golfing literature, clubhead speed is the most commonly reported metric to assess golf performance. However, a rise in the availability and use of launch monitor technologies in recent years has gathered a wide range of metrics for any given golf shot. In addition, with distance and dispersion (accuracy) being the outcome measures of any given shot and of utmost importance in golf, launch monitors can provide an in-depth understanding of how a golf shot has been achieved. To date, very limited information offers practitioners working in golf an understanding of how these metrics interlink and relate to the outcomes of any given shot. Thus, we have created a deterministic model for the golf shot and provided an overview of the relationship between these launch monitor metrics and the outcome measures of distance and accuracy. This information will give practitioners a more detailed understanding of how golf shots have been achieved and help provide more methodical means of monitoring golf performance and providing feedback to players.

ESTUDO SISTEMÁTICO SOBRE O CONTROLE CORPORAL EM JOGADORES DE GOLFE

ABSTRACT Introduction: Golf is a high-precision sport that requires excellent manual skills and motor coordination. These requirements are essential to determine a player's swing level and, consequently, their sports performance. Objective: Investigate the impact of athletes’ body control on golf performance. Methods: To study the three-dimensional motion of golf players in China, the relevant theories and techniques of sports biomechanics were used on 12 golfing volunteers. Real-time sampling correction and analysis were performed using APAS dynamic analysis technology. This paper uses the DLT method to analyze the spatial location of each point three-dimensionally. SPSS15.0 software was used for statistical processing and screening of the results of the tests. Statistics are presented as mean and standard values. Results: The correlation between the golfers’ center of gravity in hitting and the rate of motion in the swing was evidenced. The velocity obtained by the racket when hitting the ball is related to the golfer's hip inversion angle. Conclusion: A lower body center of gravity is beneficial to improve golf swing efficiency. Keeping the body in balance is the key to mastering the stroke and acceleration of the racquet. When the athlete performs the reverse pull, the energy they receive also increases, highlighting the need for specific training to promote the athlete's body balance. Level of evidence II; Therapeutic studies – investigation of treatment outcomes.

The swing performance Index: Developing a single-score index of golf swing rotational biomechanics quantified with 3D kinematics.

Golf swing generates power through coordinated rotations of the pelvis and upper torso, which are highly consistent among professionals. Currently, golf performance is graded on handicap, length-of-shot, and clubhead-speed-at-impact. No performance indices are grading the technique of pelvic and torso rotations. As an initial step toward developing a performance index, we collected kinematic metrics of swing rotational biomechanics and hypothesized that a set of these metrics could differentiate between amateur and pro players. The aim of this study was to develop a single-score index of rotational biomechanics based on metrics that are consistent among pros and could be derived in the future using inertial measurement units (IMU). Golf swing rotational biomechanics was analyzed using 3D kinematics on eleven professional (age 31.0 ± 5.9 years) and five amateur (age 28.4 ± 6.9 years) golfers. Nine kinematic metrics known to be consistent among professionals and could be obtained using IMUs were selected as candidate variables. Oversampling was used to account for dataset imbalances. All combinations, up to three metrics, were tested for suitability for factor analysis using Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin tests. Principal component analysis was performed, and the logarithm of Euclidean distance of principal components between golf swings and the average pro vector was used to classify pro vs. amateur golf swings employing logistic regression and leave-one-out cross-validation. The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve was used to determine the optimal set of kinematic metrics. A single-score index calculated using peak pelvic rotational velocity pre-impact, pelvic rotational velocity at impact, and peak upper torso rotational velocity post-impact demonstrated strong predictive performance to differentiate pro (mean ± SD:100 ± 10) vs. amateur (mean ± SD:82 ± 4) golfers with an AUC of 0.97 and a standardized mean difference of 2.12. In this initial analysis, an index derived from peak pelvic rotational velocity pre-impact, pelvic rotational velocity at impact, and peak upper torso rotational velocity post-impact demonstrated strong predictive performance to differentiate pro from amateur golfers. Swing Performance Index was developed using a limited sample size; future research is needed to confirm results. The Swing Performance Index aims to provide quantified feedback on swing technique to improve performance, expedite training, and prevent injuries.

Investigating the Effects of Differential Learning on Golfers' Pitching Performance as a Function of Handicap.

Traditionally, golf instruction has been oriented toward imitation of role models, guided by errors that surround a channel of supposedly correct repetition. Recent motor learning approaches relying on the dynamics of living systems suggest the inclusion of additional noise during practice for supporting players’ movement exploration and improving adaptability that in consequence will lead to increased performance. While the effectiveness of this approach has now been demonstrated in many sports, research exploring the effects of differential learning (DL) in golf is scarce, especially when considering different shot distances and players with various handicap levels. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the effects of an enriched learning and information intervention as opposed to a more constrained approach, on the pitching performance of golfers with different handicaps from different distances. A total of 29 adolescent golfers with an average experience of 7.8 years were divided into a DL (n = 15) and a repetitive-oriented (RB, n = 14) group. Both groups were further compared dependent on their handicap level (DL, low handicap n = 7, high handicap n = 8; RB, low handicap n = 5, high handicap n = 9). The TrackMan 4 was used to measure the shot performance for 20 m, 35 m, and 50 m distances (10 shots from each distance) based on a pre- and post-test design. Each group performed the same number of trials (n = 270, 9 executions per distance per session) across 10 sessions. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used for the statistical analysis, using the pre-test as covariate and the post-test as dependent variable. The DL group revealed advantageous adaptations in the attack and face angle (p ≤ 0.05), while also in the dynamic loft (p ≤ 0.05), mostly for the 35 m and 50 m. In addition, this intervention led to improvements in the score, club head speed, and carry distance for the 50 m when compared to the RB (p ≤ 0.05; small effects). The low handicap players from the DL group also revealed adaptation in the angles’ variables (p ≤ 0.05) when compared with high handicap players, who improved the score (p ≤ 0.05) in all distances after intervention. The low handicap players from the RB group improved the score (p ≤ 0.05) and club speed (p ≤ 0.05) for the 20 and 35 m, while the high handicap golfers revealed higher improvements for these variables only in the 50 m distance condition. Overall, coaches may incorporate approaches into their skill training that increase the number of opportunities to improve the performance of both experienced and non-experienced players by promoting the adaptability of movement patterns.

Knee flexor and extensor isokinetic strength profiles of elite male golfers

Objective: Although lower extremity plays an important role for postural control and to produce power during the golf swing, it has not been clearly examined. The aim of this study was to identify the left-right, and agonist-antagonist knee muscle strength profiles and its correlation with performance in proficient golfers. Materials and Methods: Eight male elite golfers, age 21.6±1.1 years, height 174.1±6.1 cm, and body mass 68.6±2.7 kg, with handicaps of 0-5 participated in the study. Knee flexor and extensor peak torques of the golfers were measured by using isokinetic dynamometer (at 60°/s, 120°/s and 240°/s). The number of golf shots on an 18-hole golf course was recorded to determine golf performance. Results: In golf players, knee strength difference between right and left extremities were 0.53%, 5.77% and 5.35% for flexor muscles and 5.71%, 3.60% and 7.91% for extensor muscles at 60°/s, 120°/s and 180°/s, respectively. Right and left knee Fcon/Excon ratio was between 0.67-0.99. No correlation was found between golf performance and peak torques except for right knee flexor muscle at 120°/s angular velocity. Conclusions: Knee muscle strength variations between right-left and agonist-antagonist muscles were below the injury risk limits. Those negligible imbalances may be the result of functional differences of knee muscles during each part of the golf swing. It is important to add appropriate drills to the training programs so that these differences do not cause injury and poor performance in the long term.

The effect of listening to preferred music after a stressful task on performance and psychophysiological responses in collegiate golfers.

BackgroundThis study explores whether listening to preferred music after a stressful situation affects putting and swinging performance, heart rate (HR), HR variability (HRV), and anxiety among amateur golfers.MethodsTwenty healthy amateur collegiate golfers voluntarily participated in this study (age 20.1 ± 1.17 yrs., height = 173.8 ± 7.74 cm, body weight = 72.35 ± 12.67 kg). Pre- and post-intervention HR and HRV measurements were taken, along with a self-report of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-S) and Triple Factor Anxiety Inventory (TFAI). Participants were exposed to a stressful situation through the Stroop Colour and Word Test (SCWT) and then instructed to perform three golf-practice sessions in a golf simulator, separated by 48–72 hours of recovery, under different conditions: control, pre-task music, and synchronised music.ResultsNo significant difference was identified between the experimental conditions for swinging (in terms of total distance (p = 0.116), carry distance (p = 0.608), speed of the ball (p = 0.819), and launch angle (p = 0.550) and putting performance (the number of successful putts on target (p > 0.05) and distance error between the target and ball (p = 0.122). No main effect for condition and time of intervention, as well as no interaction between these two factors was found for HR, HRV, and STAI-S (p = 0.116). However, the pre and post-intervention percentages of physiological items of the TFAI indicated a large, significant difference in synchronised music trial (p = 0.012, pre-task trial = −1.92% < control trial = 0% < synchronised trial = 4.58%).ConclusionsThe results imply that following a stressful situation, listening to preferred music before and/or during golf has no immediate effect on golf performance, anxiety, and psychophysiological responses in collegiate golfers.

How does hip and knee arthroplasty affect golfer performance and what should be expected regarding return to play?

AimsHip and knee arthroplasty is commonly performed for end-stage arthritis. There is limited information to guide golfers on the impact this procedure will have postoperatively. This study aimed to determine the impact of lower limb arthroplasty on amateur golfer performance and return to play.MethodsA retrospective observational study was designed to collect information from golfers following arthroplasty. Data were collected from 18 April 2019 to 30 April 2019 and combined a patient survey with in-app handicap data.ResultsA total of 2,198 responses were analyzed (1,097 hip and 1,101 knee). Of the respondents, 1,763 (80%) were male and the mean age was 70 years (26 to 92). Hip arthroplasty was associated with a mean increase in handicap of 1.03 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.81 to 1.25). No difference was seen between isolated leading or trailing leg (p = 0.428). Bilateral hip arthroplasty increased handicap (p < 0.001). Overall, 1,025 (94%) maintained or increased the amount of golf played, 258 (23.5%) returned to iron shots at six weeks, 883 (80%) returned to club competitions at six months, 18 (1.6%) had persistent pain, and 19 (1.7%) were unable to return to play. Knee arthroplasty was associated with a mean increase in handicap of 1.18 (95% CI 0.99 to 1.38). Trailing leg arthroplasty alone was associated with higher postoperative handicap (p = 0.002) as was bilateral surgery (p = 0.009). Overall, 1,009 (92%) maintained or increased the amount of golf played, 270 (25%) returned to iron shots at six weeks, 842 (76%) returned to club competition at six months, 66 (6%) had persistent pain, and 18 (1.6%) were unable to return to play.ConclusionHip and knee arthroplasty enables patients to maintain or increase the amount of golf played. The majority return to competitions within one year. Return to iron shots occurs from six weeks. A small increase in handicap following surgery is expected and is larger in patients undergoing bilateral surgery or those with knee arthroplasty to their trailing leg. Patients may still experience pain when playing golf.Cite this article: Bone Jt Open 2022;3(6):510–514.

Effects of Sleep Restriction on Self-Reported Putting Performance in Golf.

In the present study, we aimed to explore the effects of sleep restriction (SR) on self-reported golf putting skills. Eleven collegiate golfers participated in a self-reported, counterbalanced experimental study under two conditions: (a) a SR condition in which sleep on the night prior to putting was restricted to 4-5 hours, and (b) a habitual normal sleep (NS) condition on the night before the putting test. Following each sleep condition, participants engaged in ten consecutive putting tests at 7 am, 11 am, and 3 pm. Participants reported their subjective sleepiness before each time frame, and their chronotype, defined as their individual circadian preference, was scored based on a morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ). Participants restricted sleep to an average period of 267.6 minutes/night (SD = 51.2) in the SR condition and 426.2 (SD =38.0) minutes/night in the NS condition. A two-way analysis of variance revealed a significant main effect of the sleep condition on the lateral displacement of putts from the target (lateral misalignment) (p = 0.002). In addition, there was a significant main effect of time on distance from the target (distance misalignment) (p = 0.017), indicating less accuracy of putting in the SR condition. In the SR condition, the MEQ score was positively correlated with distance misalignment at 3 pm (ρ = 0.650, p = 0.030), suggesting that morningness types are susceptible to the effects of SR on putting performance. Our findings suggest that golfers should obtain sufficient sleep to optimize putting performance.

The effect of upper body sprint interval training on golf drive performance

Improving golf fitness is one way to improve club head velocity and subsequently golf performance. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of a three-week upper-body sprint training (SIT) program on power output and golf performance. Eleven golfers (handicap: 5.5±2.8) completed the SIT intervention. This was a self-controlled experiment with three testing points (pre-control, post-control and post-intervention) where subjects completed a ballistic bench press, upper-body Wingate and golf testing session. Significant improvements were observed (13.3-15.5%) in peak and mean power production during the Wingate post-intervention in comparison to pre- and post-control time points (P<0.05). This was replicated in peak power for the ballistic bench press for both peak power (P<0.05), but significance for mean power was only observed between post-control and post-intervention (P<0.05) (improvements of 6.1-8.5%). These improvements were not seen consistently in golf performance variables measured, with no significance identified for the 7-iron and significant improvements (P<0.05) observed in Carry Distance (2.2%) and Ball Velocity (1.4%) between pre-control and post-intervention. Lack of golf performance improvements could be because of the natural variation in club-head velocity across sessions or the inability of subjects to utilise their power gains during the golf swing. Longer SIT interventions may be needed to observe improvements in golf performance.

Return to golf after shoulder arthroplasty: golf performance and outcome scores

BackgroundGolf is an increasingly popular sport in the United States, especially among the age group of patients undergoing joint replacement. Return to golf after hip and knee arthroplasty has been previously studied. However, the quality and level of play after total shoulder arthroplasty (TSA) are less defined, especially after reverse shoulder arthroplasty (RSA). We hypothesize that shoulder pain and performance will improve during golf similarly after both anatomic and reverse total shoulder arthroplasties. MethodsThis is a retrospective cohort study of 69 patients identified as playing golf recreationally before undergoing either anatomic or RSA. All patients were cleared to return to golf activities 3 months after surgery. A golf-specific questionnaire was emailed to patients focusing on their experience returning to golf after shoulder arthroplasty. Results after TSA were compared with RSA. Patient-reported and functional outcome scores were evaluated. ResultsThe median age at surgery was 70 (62-73) years with 47 (68.1%) total shoulder replacements and 22 (31.9%) reverse shoulder replacements. Thirty-six (52.1%) patients returned to playing golf within 6 months and sixty (87.0%) patients returned to playing golf within 12 months after surgery. Enjoyment of golf either improved or stayed the same in 51 patients (91.0%). There was no significant change in the handicap score after shoulder replacement. Pain experienced during golf improved significantly from a median visual analog score pain of 6 to 1 (P < .001), with slightly greater improvement in pain for patients who underwent TSA (P = .025). Driving distance improved for 52.2% of patients, with patients who underwent TSA reporting significantly greater improvements in distance (P = .014). For all other questions, patients treated with anatomic shoulder arthroplasty and RSA reported similar experiences. American Shoulder and Elbow Surgeons score, Simple Shoulder Test score, Single Assessment Numerical Evaluation score, visual analog score function, active flexion, and external rotation all significantly improved at the most recent follow-up (P < .001). ConclusionReturn to golf after both reverse and anatomic total shoulder arthroplasties is a realistic expectation, with significant improvements in pain and function while playing golf. Enjoyment playing golf, golf performance, and average length of drive improve in approximately half of all patients. Patients treated with anatomic shoulder arthroplasty and RSA can expect similar golf experiences after surgery, with patients who underwent TSA experiencing a better improvement in driving distance.

From the Lesson Tee to the Course: A Naturalistic Investigation of Attentional Focus in Elite Golf

While debate continues on “optimal” attentional focus, little empirical knowledge exists on the way that attention is operationalized across training and performance in elite golf. Accordingly, this study aimed to (a) explore the attentional foci promoted or used by coaches and players for different types of shots in training, plus their underpinning rationale and (b) explore the attentional foci promoted or used by coaches and players in competition, plus their underpinning rationale. Our findings revealed that (a) various foci were used across training and competition; (b) all players used different combinations of foci across training and competition, and within different aspects of training itself (e.g., short vs. long game); and (c) players often used alternative or additional foci in training to those promoted by coaches, and self-generated foci for competition. These results highlight the complexity and practical reality that needs to underpin future advances in theory, research, and practice.

The Effects of Attentional Focus and Skill Level on the Performance of Golf Putting

The purpose of this study was to examine the distance of varying focus of attention for experienced and novice golfers on a golf putting task. Forty-eight experienced and 48 novice golfers were randomized into four attentional focus conditions: control (no instruction), internal (i.e., focus on the arm movement), external proximal (i.e., focus on the golf club), and external distal (i.e., focus on the target) conditions. Performance outcomes (the perceived level of confidence and number of golf putts made) were recorded. Experienced golfers had better performance outcomes than novice golfers. The external proximal focus was specifically beneficial for novice golfers, while experienced golfers had an advantage in both external focus instructions. The external proximal focus might enable a perception-action process for novice golfers to compare the relationship between action planning and the surrounding environment. In addition, the transition to expertise might result in no difference between both external focus instructions for experienced golfers.

Selective Optimization and Compensation, Skilled Golf Performance, and Age.

The present study tests predictions regarding skilled golf performance and age-based upon Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) theory. Participants were 1,324 adults (17-85 years old) who competed in a three-day major amateur golf tournament. Findings indicated that older golfers were most likely to identify difficulties in their games worthy of remediation, relied on performance-enhancing equipment to the greatest degree, and scored higher on SOC selection. For such players, SOC selection and remaining competitive predicted better tournament performance. Older players were also less likely to rate a variety of game improvement techniques as effective, less likely to engage in preround preparation, and were less likely than younger players to engage in SOC optimization and compensation strategies. This pattern of findings to a large extent also characterized middle-aged players. Despite a mixed picture of support for SOC theory, these findings provide valuable insights into its application to aging and the competitive sport domain.

Wandering mind and performance routine in golf

The past decade of research has brought about new understandings in the study of pre-shot routines, with multiple researchers advancing the field of knowledge surrounding the usage of pre-shot routines as a performance enhancement mechanism. Across golfers of novice to expert skill-levels, the results of peer-reviewed studies have clearly presented the potential benefits of incorporating pre-shot routines for all golfers in improving their play. However, with the current state of research serving as an indicator as to how far we have come in our learning of pre-shot routines in golf, researchers and practitioners in the field understand that there is still a long way to go in expanding our knowledge base on pre-shot routines and their role in the golf performance spectrum. The paper reviews the concept of the wandering mind, attentional control theory, performance routines in general, and more specifically, pre-shot routines in golf.

Psychomotor Efficiency in Golf: The Role of Physiological Responses on Putting Performance

Putting is paramount to performance in golf and differentiates low and high achievers in the sport. In the present study, we compared the heart rate, respiration rate, and galvanic skin response for missed and holed putts performed by 13 skilled male golfers from a 12-ft (3.65-m) distance. Contrary to our expectations, no significant effects were observed for heart rate and respiration rate, likely because skilled athletes (a) engage in preperformance routines and are able to control their breathing rhythms, which in turn influence their heart rate; and (b) physiological responses are idiosyncratic, akin to the Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning framework. Congruent with our expectations, we observed a significant effect for galvanic skin response, with higher values observed for missed putts. This effect was robust to individual differences and suggests that biofeedback interventions aimed at enhancing awareness of autonomous physiological responses can be beneficial for performance enhancement in golf putting.