Medieval Islam Research Articles

Sources of the Planetary Theories in Fahhād’s ̔Alā ̓ī zīj: Solving a Medieval Case of Intellectual Fraud

According to the anonymous 13th-century Shāmil zīj, Abu ̓l-wafā ̓ al- Būzjānī’s (10 June 940–after 25 May 997) planetary theories were adopted in Ibn al- Fahhād’s 12th-century ̔Alā ̓ī zīj without acknowledgement. This puzzling case of plagiarism, noted by the late Prof. E. S. Kennedy in 1956, is solved by means of a graphical approach, together with some astronomical analysis, in order to (A) visualize the perplexing network of the development of planetary theories in medieval Islam and (B) distinguish the types of relations existing between them. The paper describes the new strategies invented in the Islamic period to modify the available planetary theories in order to reconcile them with the observations, called istidrāk and i ̔tibār, which were different from the standard methods set forth in the Almagest. The accusations of fraud are shown to be unfounded. It is shown that Ibn al-Fahhād’s solar and lunar theories and his precessional rate of 1°/66y are taken from the Mumtaḥan tradition; his theories of Jupiter and Saturn were the results of his modifications of ̔Abd al-Raḥmān al-Khāzinī’s corresponding theories in the Mu ̔tabar zīj (1121 ce) on the basis of the results he achieved from his observations; his theory of Mars was constructed on the basis of his observations, independent of any other available theory; and his theory of Venus is taken directly and faithfully from Khāzinī.

The Popularization of Philosophy in Medieval Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Edited by Marieke Abram, Steven Harvey, and Lukas Muehlethaler. Philosophy in the Abrahamic Traditions of the Middle Ages 3. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2022. 465 pp. €120 hardcover.

The Popularization of Philosophy in Medieval Islam, Judaism, and Christianity. Edited by Marieke Abram, Steven Harvey, and Lukas Muehlethaler. Philosophy in the Abrahamic Traditions of the Middle Ages 3. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols, 2022. 465 pp. €120 hardcover.

Bahasa Arab sebagai Bahasa Lintas Zaman (Systematic Literature Review)

This article aims to examine the role of Arabic as a language across eras through a literature review approach. Arabic has a long history as a literary, scientific and religious language that has had a major impact on various fields of knowledge and daily life. Using the literature review method, this article investigates the development of the Arabic language over time, focusing on its contribution to scientific research, classical literature, and cultural heritage. In scientific literature, Arabic played a significant role in the development of science, mathematics, and medicine during the Islamic Golden Age. Meanwhile, in classical literature, Arabic poetry and prose have become the basis for world literature. This article also highlights the influence of Arabic in religious contexts, especially as the language of the Koran, which has had a profound impact on the spiritual and ethical life of Muslim communities. In addition, this article illustrates how Arabic remains relevant in the modern era, especially in the context of literary language, Islamic education, and international communication. This literature review provides a comprehensive picture of how Arabic continues to maintain its superiority as a language across eras, through changing times while remaining the center of thought, knowledge and identity for the people who own it

The Golden Age of Islam and Its Impact on European Technology: A Historical Analysis

This study explores the profound influence of the Islamic Golden Age on the technological advancements in Medieval Europe. It investigates how the innovations and knowledge from the Islamic world, particularly between the 8th and 14th centuries, were transferred to and assimilated within European societies, thereby playing a pivotal role in shaping the technological landscape of Europe. The primary aim is to delineate the extent of Islamic contributions to European technology, addressing the historical narrative that often overlooks these influences. This research seeks to bridge the gap in historical understanding and acknowledge the intercultural exchanges that have significantly impacted the development of technology. Employing a historical-analytical method, the study analyzes primary and secondary sources, including historical texts, scientific manuscripts, and archaeological findings. This approach facilitates a comprehensive understanding of the technological exchanges between the Islamic world and Europe. Key findings reveal that various technological innovations, such as advancements in mathematics, astronomy, engineering, and medicine, originated from the Islamic world and were instrumental in European technological progress. The study highlights specific instances of knowledge transfer, such as through the translation movement in Al-Andalus and the Crusades, which introduced Europe to a wealth of Islamic scholarly works and inventions. The findings underscore the importance of recognizing the Islamic Golden Age's contributions to European technology, challenging the Eurocentric view of history and science. This research contributes to a more inclusive historical narrative and underscores the value of intercultural knowledge exchange in technological advancement.

Strategy for Religious Endowment: A Comparative Study of the Waqf

Abstract This paper shows the spread of waqf endowments in the medieval Islamic world, especially in Egypt, Syria and Ottoman Turkey, based on narrative and archival sources, and discusses what purposes and motives for endowments and their social effects were. Finally, it goes on to state the features of the waqf endowment (combination of personal and religious motives, and of egoistic and altruistic wishes), in comparison with endowments in other regions such as Europe, India, China and Japan.

Between the Sovereignty, State-control and Non-interference in Religion. The Islamic Community and the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Antithesis of the German Orientalist Carl Heinrich Becker (1876–1933)

February 2023 marks the 90th anniversary of the death of Carl Heinrich Becker (1876–1933), a famous German orientalist, founder of modern Islamic studies in Germany and the Prussian Minister of Culture and Education (1921, 1925–1930). Since his appearance on the German and European intellectual scene at the beginning of the 20th century, C. H. Becker tried to focus his various interests not only on a historical and cultural research of medieval Islam but also on Muslim contemporary issues. Based on this, his analysis of the European colonial powers regarding their Islampolitik found its main motive in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy’s regulations on the legal position of the Bosnian Muslim’ religious and waqf-mearif institutions.
 Although some Bosnian authors, such as Ahmed Smajlović, Smail Balić, Nerkez Smailagić, Salih H. Alić, Fehim Bajraktarević and others, referred to Becker's scientific work, his notions about Bosnian Muslims remained mostly disregarded in Bosnian historiography and Islamic studies.
 Therefore, the aim of this article is to – using the literature, the press, Becker's numerous private correspondence, manuscripts and other archival sources – analyse Becker's observations about the Bosnian Muslims and their Islamic community through the practice of the Austro-Hungarian Islam policy. Thus, this paper analyses the method of his Islampolitik in the context of his antithesis of the sovereignty, state-control and non-interference in religion.

Gender Discrimination in Iran’s Capital Punishment System

This study explores gender discrimination and sex bias in Iran’s capital punishment system, reviewing the story of women on death row in Islamic and totalitarian criminal justice systems. It reaches back to the classical Islam to trace how and why sharia law discriminates against women. It discuses original findings and is the first research to focus on execution of women in Iran. A small but emerging body of literature focuses on capital punishment in Iran but does not examine gender in detail. The role of Iran’s Islamic criminal justice system for women, particularly in the context of changes and gender bias after the Islamic revolution, is examined. There is substantial literature on mariticide (women killing their husbands) and filicide (women killing their children), but insufficient literature on gender discrimination in Iran’s capital punishment system. This study provides a profile of 155 women and examines how decision-making in an Islamic criminal justice system has influenced these cases.

Arabic Manuscripts in Islamic Historiography during the Mamluk Dynasty

Historiography of Islam has often reflected the efforts to construct history distorted by political elements of power and the subjective interests of historians, hindering the presentation of the true historical facts. One of the pressing issues is how the use of the Arabic language in historical texts influences the understanding of Islamic historiography. This research aims to detail and analyze the characteristics of Islamic historiography during the medieval period, especially in the context of the Mamluk Dynasty, with a focus on the role of the Arabic language. The research methodology involves a literature review, examining various previous studies on Islamic historiography. The results of data analysis reveal characteristics of encyclopedic scholarship, the pivotal role of the Arabic language as the primary means of communication in constructing historical narratives, and the presence of creativity and originality in historical writings. Thus, this research makes a significant contribution to the development of theoretical frameworks for understanding the history of medieval Islam during the Mamluk period. This study is essential for delving into Islamic historiography of the past, especially in the context of the use of the Arabic language, to gain a deeper understanding of how Islamic history was recorded and conveyed during the Mamluk Dynasty. With this understanding, we can grasp the political, cultural, and social nuances that shaped the Islamic historical narrative during this period, while highlighting the crucial role of the Arabic language in this process.

The Loyal Scholar. Hindūšāh, Naḫjawān and the Juwaynīs

Abstract This article documents intellectual life in Iran under the Mongols through the case of Hindūšāh Naḫjawānī (d. before 728/1327–28), a scholar known primarily as a historian who has gained a certain notoriety thanks to the pioneering works of Edgard Browne and ʿAbbās Iqbāl on his Tajārib al-salaf. New sources allow to rectify a number of approximations and mistakes about his origin, his name, his works, his career and his scholarly interests. The resulting portrait of Hindūšāh illustrates several key features of the scholarly life of medieval Islam in general and of the Ilkhanid period in particular: social mobility (via Hindūšāh’s rise from a Turkish military background to a well-educated scholar), geographical mobility (through his constant travels from his home region of Naḫjawān), linguistic fluidity in his writings (between Persian and Arabic, but without the slightest interest in Turkish), political context (specifically, the increasing “Shiitisation” of the late Ilkhanate), and, last but not least, loyalty to his patrons. Hindūšāh not only enjoyed the protection of the Juwaynī brothers at a time when they wielded tremendous power in the early Ilkhanate state but also remained loyal to their memory decades after their fall in the 680/1280s. It helps explain his disillusioned view of historiographical writing but also his choice of works to copy. Hindūšāh remained an independent scholar, finding solace from distressing historical events in the study of philosophy and the reading of poetry.

The Neoplatonic Roots of Apophatic Theology in Medieval Islam on the Example of Maqāmāt aṭ-ṭuyūr/Manṭiq aṭ-ṭayr (The Conference of the Birds) by ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī (ca. 1145–1221)

This study will focus on the metaphysical and theological thought of Farīd ad-dīn ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī, i.e. Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm (ca. 1145/6–1221). ʿAṭṭār’s best known masterpiece, Maqāmāt aṭ-ṭuyūr (Arabic Manṭiq aṭ-ṭayr), The Conference of the Birds, is seen as the finest example of Sufi love poetry in the Persian language after Rūmī. His thought is distinguished by its provocative and radical theology of love, as well as elements of apophaticism. ʿAṭṭār Nīšāpūrī’s vision of God should be analyzed in the context of Neoplatonism, which in a special way contributed to the development of apophatic Muslim thought. This approach challenged classical Islamic theism, whose representatives were convinced that they had sufficient knowledge of God from the Quran and Sunna. Aṭṭār’s doctrine focused on God who is a part of the universe. In other words, this author believed that whatever exists is part of God.

The ‘government of men’: Moving beyond Foucault’s binaries

Recent controversies surrounding Michel Foucault suggest tensions and unresolved issues in his unfinished work. Here we interrogate Foucault’s legacy in relation to his claim that the welfare-state is a secularization of the Christian pastorate. We challenge Foucault’s binary narrative of the Christian flock versus the Graeco-Roman citizen and expand the focus to other ‘technologies of power’ in medieval Islam. Rather than an outburst of governmentality in modernity, we suggest a transregional and longue durée history of which the Christian pastorate was merely one facet. This non-binary framework indicates that Foucault’s claim of a ‘demonic’ fusion of sovereign and pastoral power in modern politics requires significant revisitation. Finally, we claim that Foucault’s much-discussed fascination with neoliberalism may have roots in this one-sided narrative regarding the birth of the welfare-state.

History of the Development of Philosophy and Science in the Greek and Islamic Era

This research examines the historical development of the philosophy of education and science during the Greek and Islamic periods, two historical epochs that significantly influenced the evolution of thought and the conception of science. In classical Greek times, philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle contributed profound thoughts regarding education and science. The primary focus was on exploring the fundamental concepts of education, character formation, and the development of scientific thought. A shift in intellectual focus occurred during the Islamic Golden Age, where Greek knowledge was inherited and enriched by Muslim scholars such as Ibn Sina and Ibn Khaldun. Islamic thought played a crucial role in integrating philosophy, education, and science, with the application of scientific methods, rationality, and ethics as integral parts of the educational approach. This research employs a historical analysis method to trace the development of ideas and major contributions of figures in both periods. The results of the study highlight the evolution of education and science concepts from classical Greece to the Islamic era, indicating a transfer of intellectual ideas and values that laid the foundation for the development of modern science and education. It is hoped that a profound understanding of the history of the development of the philosophy of education and science in both periods can provide critical insights into the roots of thought and values that form the basis for contemporary science and education.

Flag Respect in Indonesia: A Study of Islamic Literature and Legislation in Indonesia

The tribute of the flag is routinely debated on social media, with a flag ceremony held on 17 August each year. Such issues appear to be annual discussions, although there are logical reasons for the party to unanimously express respect for the flag. This article was presented to add academic literature to honoring the flag by answering how unquestioned human diversity is in Islamic literature, how the urgency of the flag in Islamic literature, and how urgency honors the flag in the legal state. The method used to answer these questions is a descriptive qualitative research method with a literary study approach. The sources used are secondary data obtained by authors of Verses, Hadith, Classical Islamic literature, legislation, journals, processes, and relevant online news. The result of the discussion was to become sunnatullah of the existence of humans who are of different ethnicities and nations. The flag that represents a nation or a nation exists and is recorded in the history of Islamic literature. The salute of the flag as an expression of gratitude, a love of the fatherland, commemorating the hero's ceremonial service, which proved there is no Shirk word in the anthem, the blessing of ceremony-bearers and the words of prayer recited at the end of the ceremony are acceptable, recommended even (should) on postulate ṣaḥīḥ even above ṣarīḥ. The attitude of the flag in the legislation is in Article 20 PP. No. 40 of 1958 and Article 15 of Law No. 24 of 2009, respect means to uphold the state's identity while also being a form of love and acknowledging the sovereignty and honor towards the state.

Late Antique Intellectualism in Medieval Islam: The Shiraz Circle and the Revival of Ancient and Islamic Knowledge

This article seeks to offer a new reading of how we frame medieval Islamic intellectual traditions in relation to the question of Late Antiquity. It introduces a group of medieval Muslim thinkers, known as the Shiraz Circle, who remain largely unknown to modern scholarship. The main argument is that for these thinkers knowledge of the pre-Islamic past and their Islamic present was mediated by the same lens. The article also examines the main themes in the study of Late Antiquity, such as intellectualism, religion, and philosophy, and the relevance of such themes in medieval Islam.

Al-Khwarizmi is an outstanding representative of oriental pedagogy

Introduction. Currently, there is no holistic representation of the pedagogical system that developed in the IX–XII centuries on the territory of the Arab East and Central Asia. The reconstruction of the pedagogical heritage of the East will, firstly, let lay a value platform for determining the coordinates of the development of Islamic education in the present period; secondly, the appeal to positive experience can contribute to the solution of educational and educational tasks of modern Russian education. The purpose of the article is to holistically present the educational theory of one of the founders of oriental pedagogy – al-Khwarizmi. Methodology. The following methodological foundations are defined: at the philosophical level – civilizational, at the general scientific level – systemic and oriental, at the concrete scientific level – axiological approaches. The biographical, historical-typological and constructive-genetic methods of historical and pedagogical research are used. The main sources were the works of Arab, Persian and Central Asian researchers, as well as the published works of Russian and foreign authors who considered various problems of the culture of medieval Islam. Results. The pedagogical theory of al-Khwarizmi has been systematized, which was one of the earliest appeals in world science to pedagogy as a science – the main tool for cognition of educational reality. The definition of the concept of "Oriental pedagogy" is substantiated, which is a science of upbringing and education that historically arose in the IX century, based on the legacy of outstanding Islamic enlighteners of the East, and associated with ethnic and religious views of peoples living in the territories of Arab and Central Asian countries, having equal importance on a par with the widespread world pedagogical systems. Conclusion. The pedagogical theory of al-Khwarizmi was aimed at the formation of an independent, creative, religious, virtuous personality striving for a constant expansion of the horizons of knowledge. He and his like-minded people believed that the combination of scientific knowledge, constant work on oneself and spiritual culture, contribute to the development of a fully developed personality, in which spiritual development, improvement of mind, consciousness, thinking and feelings are balanced. The pedagogical approaches of al-Khwarizmi, supplemented by the achievements of subsequent generations, are reflected in modern educational concepts and theories.

중세 이슬람 시대 국가의 순례 관리에 관한 연구

This paper examines the management measures taken by Islamic states from the Rashidun Caliphate to the late Abbasid era in order to protect Muslims during their pilgrimage and assist them in successfully performing Ḥajj rites in Mecca. The states were responsible for the maintenance and administration of facilities in Mecca and Medina, the construction of Ḥajj roads leading to Mecca, the safety of pilgrims, and the provision of water. The construction of 'Zubaydah Road' and the organization of pilgrimage groups ensured speedy and safe travel, while the installation of water supply facilities in Mecca and along the travel routes served to alleviate water shortages. This paper argues that the state administration of the Ḥajj in Medieval Islam indicates the Caliphs' specific political purposes, while the Abbasid Queen Zubaydah, a devout Muslim and philanthropist, devoted herself to pilgrimage affairs.

Two cases of cystic echinococcosis reported from al‐Andalus cemeteries (southern Iberia): Insights into zoonotic diseases in Islamic Medieval Europe

AbstractThe identification of a calcified hydatid cyst in the bioarcheological record is key to the diagnosis of cystic echinococcosis (i.e., hydatid disease), a parasitic infection caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. This zoonosis can be linked to human–canid interactions, given the reproductive cycle of the parasite (from canids to herbivores/humans as intermediate hosts), and it is commonly associated with agropastoral communities in both the past and present. However, it is not easy to identify a calcified hydatid cyst in the archeological record because of preservation problems and its similarity with other calcifications of biological and geological origin. We report the presence of two fragmented ovoidal calcified formations associated with human remains in different medieval Islamic cemeteries from the Kingdom of Granada in al‐Andalus (Southern Iberia, 13th–15th centuries AD). These formations were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy and energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy. The localization, morphology, and composition of the calcifications indicate that they are hydatid cysts caused by E. granulosus, representing the first evidence of cystic echinococcosis in Islamic Medieval Europe. Our results are in line with archeological and historical records of human–animal interactions and agropastoral practices in al‐Andalus, and they highlight the importance of analyzing calcified masses in the osteoarcheological record.

Intellectual Triumph in The Islamic Scientific Exploration of Andalusia

This article delves into the period of Islamic magnificence in Andalusia, spanning from 913 to 961 CE, under the rule of Khalifah Abdurrahman An-Nashir. It sheds light on the epoch's remarkable strides in scientific exploration, notably through the prominence of influential scholars and scientists like Ibn Rushd and Ibn Athiyyah, whose enduring contributions continue to resonate within the Islamic world. Methodologically, this research adopts a historical approach, meticulously examining pertinent books and journals to unearth the narrative of this transformative era. This study showed that central to this era's intellectual ascendance was the establishment of comprehensive educational institutions, ranging from foundational to advanced levels. A striking exemplar is the University of Cordoba, a revered seat of learning that exemplifies an integrated educational approach. Additionally, the era's scientific vitality found material expression in the creation of opulent libraries, housing collections exceeding a million scholarly volumes. The outcome of this exploration underscores the palpable intellectual dynamism that characterized the Islamic golden age in Andalusia under Khalifah Abdurrahman An-Nashir's leadership.

Construction of other genders by means of personal appearance in medieval Islam: the case of mukhannathūn (effeminates) and kuntha (hermaphrodites)

This article focuses on two variations from the Muslim patriarchal binary system of females and males: mukhannathūn (those who display female behaviour and appearance while having male sex organs) and khuntha (those with a lack of or confused sex organs). These two categories were tolerated and represent an extension of the normative expected sex-gender spectrum of Islam. Personal appearance, in its broad meaning, is used as a tool for analysing the social-religious existence of mukhannathūn and khuntha within the community. The article concludes that jurists imposed a whole set of regulations, mixing male and female appearance, for the purpose of defining and differentiating these groups. These laws also enabled the religious and social existence of mukhannathūn and khuntha within Muslim communities. The patriarchal system preserved its power and protected itself while widening the binary male-female spectrum to include variations such as medial sex. On cover:Late Roman wall, the portion immediately south of the West Gate (Porta Oea) with re-used blocks from first-century mausolea (Drawing by Francesca Bigi) and Tombstone of Regina from South Shields (Arbeia) (Tyne and WearArchives and Museums/ Bridgeman Images). E-ISSN (online version) 2611-3686 ISSN (print version) 0065-0900

Muslim Scholars (ʿUlamāʾ) as Educational Leadership in Medieval Islamic History

This article focusses on the role of Muslim scholars (ʿulamaʾ) as educational leadership in medieval Islamic era. It deals with the ideal educational leadership in Islam, its etiquette, and optimal means of teaching. Therefore, the research attempts to answer the central question about the extent to which teachers (scholars) have the characteristics of leadership and apply them in practice with students, and methods of educational process. This paper relied on primary sources, biographies of scholars, their educational role, and writings, to conclude the main characteristics of educational Islamic leadership features: charisma, authority, and knowledge. Derived from the Qur’an and Sunna.