Gold Mining Sector Research Articles

The multidimensionality of exclusion in the small-scale gold mining sector in Guyana: Institutional reform, landlordism, and mineral uncertainty

• Exclusion among miners in Guyana’s ASM sector is driven by multiple factors. • New regulations and stricter enforcement harm poorer miners. • Unrestricted mineral property accumulation has also heightened landlord power. • Exclusion may be inevitable due to the increasing scarcity of deposits. • Critical mining research can contribute to building more inclusive ASM approaches. Proponents of formalization argue that bringing artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) into the legal sphere represents the best way of enabling social and economic development. Critics counter that formalization policies can be a source of exclusion for smaller producers, as new properties become difficult and expensive to access, and new regulatory standards prove beyond the technical and financial capacity of smaller operators. Guyana’s long-formalized ASM gold mining sector offers a useful lens through which to examine these arguments. This article finds that Guyana’s relatively established and egalitarian ASM sector has become the site of various complex exclusionary dynamics. On the one hand, the impacts of increasingly restrictive state-led forms appear to support contentions about how formal mining environments tend towards the exclusion of smaller operators. On the other hand, evidence shows that it is not merely state policies that are responsible for exclusion, but further social and ecological factors, such as landlord-tenant relations and the depth and scarcity of mineral deposits. Overall, these findings offer new perspectives on ASM dynamics within formalized institutional environments. They suggest that understanding exclusion can be aided by adopting an analytical lens capable of capturing the complex interactions between a range of social and ecological phenomena.

Illicit Financial Flows, Theft and Gold Smuggling in Africa

The article reviews recent research and controversies surrounding the quantification of illicit financial flows (IFF) in the gold mining sector in Africa. It is argued that the methodology and data used in the quantification of the most frequently analysedtechnique, i.e., export undervaluation, is flawed not only because of the recognized weakness of the international trade data, but also because it focuses only on one aspect of IFF, and does not attempt to address issues pertaining to actual undermeasurementor misspecification of volumes. It is argued that estimates of tax evasion activities can only be determined through forensic economic and accounting techniques, and not through macro-economic or trade data. The last section considers the increased evidence of gold smuggling to the UAE from various African countries, some of which produce no gold of any significance, but appear to export in very large volumes; and at unit import values well below world market prices.

Mercury Contamination from Dental Amalgam.

Mercury in dental amalgam is a hidden source of global mercury pollution, resulting from the illegal diversion of dental mercury into the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector, to crematoria emissions from the deceased and sewage sludge that is sold to farmers. These significant mercury sources result in air, water, and food contamination that consequently have a negative impact on human health. The aim of the present study was to investigate and report on all of the various pathways mercury in dental amalgam can enter the environment. The present study searched the electronic data bases of PubMed and Google Scholar. Peer reviewed journals and references of studies included for full-text review were examined for potentially relevant studies. Articles published between 2000 to 2018 were searched and specifically screened for articles that referenced "Dental Amalgam," and the following key words in various combinations: "Minamata Convention on Mercury Treaty," "Sewage Sludge," "Cremation," and "Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining." Data were included on the most populous countries of China, India, the United States, Brazil, and the European Union collectively. We also included data on cremation statistics and current global trends, looking at populations where cremation is a common practice, such as Japan and India. Dental amalgam represents a significant, but understudied area of global mercury pollution that includes cremation, sewage sludge, burial, and small-scale gold mining. Mercury used in products and processes, including dental amalgams, is a global pollutant. Even after the last mercury dental amalgam is placed, its toxic legacy will continue for decades, because of its pervasive bioaccumulation in the environment. Government regulatory agencies should make it mandatory to utilize available technologies, not only in developing countries, but also in developed countries, to reduce mercury contamination. The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Over-spilling institutions: The political ecology of ‘greening’ the small-scale gold mining sector in Guyana

This article applies a political ecology framework to examine the challenges of ‘greening’ Guyana’s relatively established small-scale gold mining sector. Based on a year of fieldwork conducted in Guyana’s gold mining landscape, the article highlights a range of ways in which the supposed stability and transparency of Guyana’s institutional mining framework is undermined by the dynamic and discretionary realities of actual small-scale gold mining activity. The tendency of mining activity to overspill institutional boundaries is contributing to worsening ecological conditions in the country’s interior. For miners, it is shown that, even having acquired or accessed formal property, they face various challenges (such as minimal state support, stressed conditions of production, and tenure insecurity) that compromise their ability to enact ‘green’ mining. The state meanwhile faces related challenges in ensuring that dynamic and fluid mining activity remains within its legal and literal boundaries. Overall, the article illustrates how the mainstream green mining ‘storyline’ – based on the notion of formal institutions as a disciplining or containing force – is disrupted by an intimate interaction among unruly socio-ecological realities.

Linking stakeholder perspectives for environmental policy development and implementation in Ghana’s gold mining sector: Insights from a Q-methodology study

Gold mining might have contributed to socio-economic development in Ghana, but it has also exacerbated incidences of environmental degradation and fostered associated human rights violations within local communities. As a result, the government of Ghana has sought to address the incidences of environmental degradation related to mining by formulating and implementing a wide range of environmental policies. However, the extent to which these environmental policies have been effective remains debatable. This problem has been attributed to the fact that the views of critical stakeholders were either neglected or received inadequate attention in the design and implementation of environmental policies. Consequently, drawing on empirical evidence from fieldwork in Ghana, and based on Q-methodology, this paper seeks to understand areas of agreements and disagreements among critical stakeholders as a way to improve environmental policy development and implementation. The paper identifies the politics of blaming, regulatory disjuncture and stakeholder expectation dissonance as areas of disagreements within stakeholder views that might also explain the ineffectiveness of environmental policy development and implementation within Ghana’s gold mining industry. Similarly, based on the Q-sort factor analysis, the paper synthesizes three perspectives that critical stakeholders believe, if adhered to, could enhance the effectiveness of environmental policies within Ghana’s gold mining sector. The paper concludes by considering the implications of its findings for environmental policy development and implementation in developing countries.

Sustainable development in Ghana's gold mines: Clarifying the stakeholder's perspective

Abstract Using semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions (FGDs), this study examined critical stakeholder's perceptions, experiences and competence in assuring the sustainable management of Ghana's major gold mines. The investigation was inspired by a synthesis of the United Nation's Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the global community in September 2015; it places human resource capacity at the center of a sustainability struggle between local and international businesses. The findings of this study encompass two opposing but interesting perspectives. On the one hand, the study showed that sustainable development is understood differently by stakeholders within the gold mining sector in Ghana, which is why gold mining companies employ different approaches in their pursuit of sustainability objectives. On the other hand, the study revealed that, as mining activities are similar across different mining companies, common understanding and operation of sustainable development in the country's gold mines is a more practical approach to sustaining mining operations. This study further revealed that to facilitate the effective implementation of sustainable development within Ghana's gold mines and to ensure its alignment with SDGs, a regulatory framework is required and this should be developed based on the input of stakeholders.

“Bulldozer politics”, state-making and (neo-)extractive industries in Tanzania’s gold mining sector

Recent dynamics in Tanzania’s politics have severely impacted on its extractive sector. By engaging in an ‘economic war’ with the yet largest gold producer in the country, Acacia Mining, President John Magufuli’s government led resistance against the current setup of extraction in Tanzania. In the course of this ‘war’, the government did not only fight its proclaimed enemy, but released a new legislation with the aim to dissolve confidential contracts signed under World Bank influence in the 1990s and increase state participation in and control over the sector. While these dynamics are linked to issues of resource nationalism, this paper argues that the particular role of the state rather suggests a turn to neo-extractivism, a term borrowed from the Latin American debate, in Tanzania. By engaging in state-led resistance against the established way of industrial mining in the country, the Tanzanian government addresses popular demands and underpins its ambitions as a sovereign, developmental state.

South‐South Irregular Migration: The Impacts of China's Informal Gold Rush in Ghana

AbstractThis article examines irregular South‐South migration from China to Ghana, and the role it played in transforming livelihoods and broader developmental landscapes. It looks at the entry of approximately 50,000 Chinese migrants into the informal small‐scale gold mining sector from 2008‐2013. These migrants mainly hailed from Shanglin County in Guangxi Province. In Ghana, they formed mutually beneficial relationships with local miners, both legal and illegal, introducing machinery that substantially increased gold production. However, the legal status of Chinese miners was particularly problematic as, by law, small‐scale mining is restricted to Ghanaian citizens. In mid‐2013, President Mahama established a military task force against illegal mining, resulting in the deportation of many Chinese miners. The article examines the experiences of both Chinese migrants and Ghanaian miners. Findings are that irregular migration into an informal sector had long‐lasting impacts and played a significant role in the transformation of economic, political, and physical landscapes in Ghana.

Challenges and opportunities of environmental policy implementation: Empirical evidence from Ghana's gold mining sector

While a number of studies that have examined the nature and impact of gold mining in Ghana have often identified environmental degradation as a major consequence of resource extraction, limited efforts have so far been directed at exploring the challenges and opportunities facing the implementation of environmental policies within Ghana's gold mining sector. In addition, how the views of critical stakeholders can be harnessed to ensure the effective implementation of the current environmental policies in the gold mining sector has also received limited attention. Consequently, drawing on qualitative data that are complemented with the analysis of government policy documents, this study reveals that, lack of community participation, insufficient coordination among government institutions, inadequate personnel and logistics, and lack of political will are factors contributing to the ineffective implementation of environmental policies in Ghana's gold mining sector. The paper concludes by considering the theoretical and policy implication of its findings for effective environmental policy implementation in Ghana.

KONFLIK PENAMBANGAN EMAS DI KECAMATAN LIMUN KABUPATEN SAROLANGUN

AbstractIn 1970-1999 the development of gold mining in Indonesia was influenced by the centralistic New Order government's economic policies including the gold mining sector. In 1970 the community in Kecamatan Limun still did the gold mining with the traditional model. In the year 2000 mining model undergoing change and development, people doing gold mining using machine. The impact of mining activities on environmental, social, economic and political damage. The government as the policy owner issues a policy, which ultimately leads to conflict. This conflict occurred because of a clash between government policies and the interests of gold miners.Keyword: Conflict, Gold Mining, Limun District

All that glitters is not gold or platinum: Institutions and the use of mercury in mining in Chocó, Colombia

Through the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector, Colombia has become the world’s leading mercury polluter per capita. At the same time, the country’s Pacific coast is one of the most biodiverse area on earth. This article aims to examine the institutions involved in the attempts to eliminate the use of mercury in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) in the district of Chocó, Colombia, using a novel policy assessment method, that examines the behaviour of actors across the social system. To this end, and taking Law 1658 (the mercury law) as our basis, we used legal instruments to consult with, and question, the centralized and semi-centralized state organizations. We also included the relevant decentralized organizations and the main actor of the alluvial ASM of gold and platinum in our research, through interviews and observation. Conceptualizing institutions as social systems of explicit and tacit rules, our findings provide evidence of stagnation in the state organizations, and of the tendency to underestimate the importance of science, technology, and innovation in mercury elimination. Indeed, the current situation, in which tacit rules are perpetuated and reproduced, is a consequence of the state’s inefficiency, allowing the continuation of illegal and underground economic activities by informal organizations and civil society. The article also makes some suggestions for a more positive future direction for Colombia in the context of the ratification of the Minamata Convention on Mercury and progress towards the formalization of the ASM sector.

Formalizing artisanal gold mining under the Minamata convention: Previewing the challenge in Sub-Saharan Africa

This article contributes to a growing body of literature which explores how the Minamata Convention on Mercury is influencing the development of artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) – low-tech mineral extraction and processing – in sub-Saharan Africa. Conceived to raise awareness of the environmental impact of mercury and to minimize its use in industry, the Convention focuses heavily on ASM, the largest source of anthropogenic emissions of mercury worldwide. Article 7 of the Convention requires ratifying countries with ‘more than significant quantities of ASGM [artisanal and small-scale gold mining]’ to draft comprehensive National Action Plans (NAPs) that outline training programs for the handling of mercury and strategies for reducing emissions from artisanal and small-scale gold mines. The focus here, however, is on one point in particular, the importance of which, thus far, has been largely-overlooked: the need for ratifying countries to include in their NAPs ‘Steps to facilitate the formalization or regulation of the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector’. In sub-Saharan Africa, where most ASM activities are found in the informal ‘space’, this promises to be a contentious issue moving forward. The article explains why this is the case, drawing heavily on findings from research being conducted in Ghana, Sierra Leone and Mali, three of the region’s most dynamic ASM economies.

Evaluating EDGARv4.tox2 speciated mercury emissions ex-post scenarios and their impacts on modelled global and regional wet deposition patterns

Speciated mercury gridded emissions inventories together with chemical transport models and concentration measurements are essential when investigating both the effectiveness of mitigation measures and the mercury cycle in the environment. Since different mercury species have contrasting behaviour in the atmosphere, their proportion in anthropogenic emissions could determine the spatial impacts. In this study, the time series from 1970 to 2012 of the EDGARv4.tox2 global mercury emissions inventory are described; the total global mercury emission in 2010 is 1772 tonnes. Global grid-maps with geospatial distribution of mercury emissions at a 0.1° × 0.1° resolution are provided for each year. Compared to the previous tox1 version, tox2 provides updates for more recent years and improved emissions in particular for agricultural waste burning, power generation and artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sectors. We have also developed three retrospective emissions scenarios based on different hypotheses related to the proportion of mercury species in the total mercury emissions for each activity sector; improvements in emissions speciation are seen when using information primarily from field measurements. We evaluated them using the GEOS-Chem 3-D mercury model in order to explore the influence of speciation shifts, to reactive mercury forms in particular, on regional wet deposition patterns. The reference scenario S1 (EDGARv4.tox2_S1) uses speciation factors from the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP); scenario S2 (“EPA_power”) uses factors from EPA's Information Collection Request (ICR); and scenario S3 (“Asia_filedM”) factors from recent scientific publications. In the reference scenario, the sum of reactive mercury emissions (Hg-P and Hg2+) accounted for 25.3% of the total global emissions; the regions/countries that have shares of reactive mercury emissions higher than 6% in total global reactive mercury are China+ (30.9%), India+ (12.5%) and the United States (9.9%). In 2010, the variations of reactive mercury emissions amongst the different scenarios are in the range of −19.3 t/yr (China+) to 4.4 t/yr (OECD_Europe). However, at the sector level, the variation could be different, e.g., for the iron and steel industry in China reaches 15.4 t/yr. Model evaluation at the global level shows a variation of approximately ±10% in wet deposition for the three emissions scenarios. An evaluation of the impact of mercury speciation within nested grid sensitivity simulations is performed for the United States and modelled wet deposition fluxes are compared with measurements. These studies show that using the S2 and S3 emissions of reactive mercury, can improve wet deposition estimates near sources.

Unpacking Land Grabs: Subjects, Performances and the State in Ghana's ‘Small‐scale’ Gold Mining Sector

ABSTRACTDuring the 2008 global financial crisis, gold‐backed reserves became a ‘safe haven’ for capital investment, causing gold prices to hit historic highs. Globally, small‐scale gold mining activities proliferated as prices climbed. Along the banks of Ghana's Offin River, abandoned, waterlogged mining pits now stretch for kilometres where agricultural and other land uses recently existed. While small‐scale mining is a right reserved for Ghanaian citizens, many mining sites are foreign‐operated and almost all go unremediated. There is thus a stark tension between Ghanaian minerals laws and environmental regulations and the ongoing transformation of rural landscapes. Based on 112 interviews and long‐term observation in Ghana since 2010, this article untangles the relationships and practices mediating ‘illegal’ foreign mining operations. Shifting subjectivities, performances and practices bring land grabbing into being as state actors weave together legal and extra‐legal domains to facilitate, and profit from, foreign mining. Other officials experience fear and frustration in the face of powerful mining interests, demonstrating the complex workings and conflicts between government actors and agencies. Detailing co‐productions between ‘legal’ and ‘illegal’ domains in official licensing procedures complicates understandings of the state and its role in foreign land grabbing, breaking down the ontological binaries — rational/irrational, official/unofficial — used to uphold an image of state legitimacy and cohesion. Finally, given the spatial extent of small‐scale mining deals and ensuing social and environmental transformations, the authors urge land‐grab scholars not to dismiss the importance of small‐scale deals alongside larger transactions.

Life cycle energy use and CO2 emissions of small-scale gold mining and refining processes in the Philippines

Gold is one of the most significant metals in the world, with use in various sectors including the electronic, health, and fashion industries. The Philippines has the world’s third largest known Au deposits and is ranked 20th in global gold production. Of the country’s annual production, about 80% is from the small-scale gold mining (SSGM) sector. This work estimates the first location-specific life cycle energy use and CO2 emissions of SSGM establishments in the Philippines. Process-based LCA was used with functional unit of 100 g Au and observed data from 2010 to 2011 for mining, comminution, recovery, and refining. Four gold production paths were observed in the provinces of Benguet and Camarines Norte, namely, amalgamation, cyanidation with carbon-in-leach (CIL), cyanidation with leaching with zinc, and combination of amalgamation and cyanidation with CIL. It was estimated that 3–18 g of Au was extracted for every ton of ore within 57–159 man-hours from mining to refining. Energy use estimates ranged from 3501 to 67,325 MJ/100 g Au, while CO2 emission estimates ranged from 398 to 5340 kg CO2/100 g Au. The combination of amalgamation and cyanidation with CIL processes was the least energy and carbon intensive, while cyanidation with CIL process was the most intensive. Electricity use accounted for 95–100% of total emissions, except in cyanidation with CIL where kerosene accounts for 77% of the total. Since SSGMs contributed 80% of the 40 tons of Au produced in the Philippines in 2014, the SSGM energy use was estimated to be between 1120 and 21,544 TJ and the CO2 emissions to be between 129 and 1726 ktons CO2. Energy estimates are most sensitive to refining process yield and electrical equipment efficiency. The estimated life cycle emissions rate for SSGM in the Philippines is lower than available estimates of large-scale mining. Notwithstanding, given the sector’s reliance on fossil fuels for its energy needs and the Philippines’ pledge to reduce its CO2 footprint by 70% in 2030, every effort to mitigate energy use and CO2 emission counts. Three main recommendations toward energy consumption and CO2 emissions reduction in SSGMs are proposed: (1) policy to promote technologies that are energy-efficient and processes that maximize gold process yield, (2) effective Minahang Bayan (SSGM mining zone mandated by law) implementation to ensure use of higher-grade ores, and (3) adoption of renewable energy in Minahang Bayans to promote energy independence and mitigate CO2 emissions.

Estimating the “Forgone” ESVs for Small-Scale Gold Mining Using Historical Image Data

Ghana’s economic development relies largely on the mining industry, but the ecological cost is very high, particularly for the small-scale sector. To ascertain and give an account of the ecological pressures from the small-scale gold mining sector, we quantified and appraised the ecosystems (land cover types) degradation due to mining land use along portions of the renowned Pra River basin of Ghana. The study classified and analysed high-quality Landsat image data (1986–2016) to monitor processes and changes in the river basin and adopted the Ecosystem Service Value (ESV) model to quantify the forgone value in monetary term. The results revealed that the initial ESV of 17.69 million US$ in 1986 increased to 18.40 million US$ in 2002 for the study landscape with the small-scale mining sector accounting for 8.4% of the trade-off costs. The expansion of forest areas and its higher value coefficient (VC) was, however, prevalent and this resulted in a net positive change during this period. However, in 2016, out of the total ESV of 14.63 million US$ obtained, the small-scale mining activities accounted for 36.8% of the trade-off costs. The substantial increase in trade-off costs with a subsequent decrease in ESV in the study landscape, following the intensification of small-scale gold mining, indicates that their activities have been degrading the watershed ecosystem and are, therefore, unsustainable. The study affirms the need for policymakers/government to review the laws, particularly on post-mining monitoring schemes to deter illegal miners and support the registered small-scale miners who are willing to implement land rehabilitation activities.

Teaching artisanal miners about mercury pollution using songs

This article argues that poor policies are heavily responsible for the mercury pollution problem in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector. It condemns governments and the futile regulations in place to ban mercury in the sector. The emphasis should rather be on implementing educational initiatives capable of highlighting a better way forward for miners and other community members. In addition, permanent technical assistance is crucially needed to foster sustainable implementation of clean processing techniques. Humor is an effective way to engage miners, including parodies stressing the health impacts of mercury. The article shares some of these parodies.

Multinational mining enterprises and artisanal small-scale miners: From confrontation to cooperation

In many developing countries, multinational enterprises (MNEs) in mining operate alongside fast-growing communities of informal artisanal, small-scale miners. This has led to direct conflict and competition for mineral resources. This paper introduces the Salience and Institutional Analysis and Design framework as a means to analyze the MNE strategies used to address informal miners across different governance levels in the gold mining sector of Ghana and discusses the implications of these strategies for sustainability. We identify the emergence of a cooperative strategy with informal miners as a sustainable alternative to the political strategy of reliance on the state to protect tenure.

Phasing Out Mercury? Ecological Economics and Indonesia's Small-Scale Gold Mining Sector

This article uses an ecological economics approach to analyse tensions surrounding efforts to phase out mercury in Indonesia's artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) sector, among the largest sources of mercury pollution worldwide. Many scholars and environmental activists have long hoped that global restrictions in mercury trade would drive up mercury prices and decrease mercury use and pollution in ASGM. However, in Indonesia, despite global mercury trade restrictions, recent increases in domestic mercury supplies through new cinnabar mining developments have made mercury less expensive and more available, destabilizing efforts at reducing mercury use. This article discusses implications of domestic cinnabar mining for controlling mercury in Indonesia's ASGM sector, highlighting obstacles to implementing the Minamata Convention, a treaty that aims to restrict mercury use. We link discussion of mercury mining to other socioeconomic processes, labour relations and power dynamics shaping mercury use in gold mining and hindering collectivised mercury-free technology uptake. Examining new evidence regarding the social metabolism of a changing extractive economy, we underscore why an integrated ecological economics paradigm – carefully grounding analysis in the context of local labour situations – is needed to challenge assumptions and inform new strategies for mercury reduction/elimination in ASGM.

Assessment of the Challenges in Policy Implementation in the Small Scale Gold Mining Sector in Ghana – A Case Study

In recent times, stakeholders in the mining sector have expressed concerns about the environmental degradation and the social impacts of uncontrolled Small Scale Mining (SSM) activities in Ghana despite the existence of legislative instruments that define the procedures required for the acquisition of licences and operations of SSM activities in the country. This paper assesses the challenges in policy implementation in the small scale gold mining sector of Ghana by reviewing policies on regularisation and environmental management. It further identifies challenges faced by small scale mining operators in adhering to laid down policies for the smooth operation of the sector and furthermore assesses the views of some principal stakeholders on the benefits and challenges of small scale mining using the Dunkwa mining district as a test case. The methods employed include: field visits to some small scale mining sites within the Dunkwa mining district; interviews and questionnaire administration; and statistical and content analysis of data. The study reveals the following factors, among others, to have contributed largely to the difficulty in regularisation, environmental and social challenges that have plagued the SSM sector: low level of education of majority of miners; bureaucracies and centralisation of licence acquisition processes; lack of sources of finance for SSM projects; lack of geological information on mineable areas; and lack of adequate knowledge of the laws and regulations on mining and environment. In addressing the challenges the following recommendations are made: decentralisation of the regularisation processes to simplify licence acquisition; adequate geological investigations should be undertaken on SSM blocked-out areas to reduce the try and error mining approach adopted by miners; and continuous education and training of miners on good mining and environmental practices. Keywords: Small Scale Mining, Mineral Policies, Environmental Impact, Regularisation, Challenges