Gold Artifacts Research Articles

Texture measurements of archaeological objects at STRESS-SPEC neutron diffractometer

The main advantage of neutron diffraction over X-ray diffraction, arises from the fact that the interaction of neutrons with material is relatively weak and not related to the number of electrons, and consequently the penetration depth of neutrons is about 102-103 larger than that of laboratory X-ray diffraction. This is particular essential for the non-destructive texture analysis of archaeological objects as no additional surface treatments of the samples (e.g. polishing) are necessary. STRESS-SPEC at MLZ is designed as a state of the art multi-purpose diffractometer for strain and texture analysis. Besides the optimized high neutron flux the available large variability in gauge volume definition systems together with the robotic sample handling option offer high flexibility for bulk or gradient texture measurements. Since 2014, local and bulk textures of iron and gold artefacts collected by Bavarian State Archaeological Collection (Munich, Germany) have been thoroughly investigated at STRESS-SPEC. Results showed that heat treatment of iron artefacts at high temperatures can re-orientate the inner crystallites. In the gold foil artefacts, the texture represented by the measured pole figures shows a high symmetry – the so-called Cube component, which is commonly found in annealed fcc materials. For comparison, laboratory samples were produced by rolling, flat hammering, and pin / round hammering and also measured in order to elucidate possible manufacturing and processing routes. In turned out that both rolling and pin / round hammering followed by a high temperature annealing can produce similar pole figures to those of the gold artefacts foils.

Gold Artifacts from the Early Scythian Princely Tomb Arzhan 2, Tuva—Aesthetics, Function, and Technology

This article explores the extraordinarily rich gold finds from the Early Scythian princely tomb Arzhan 2 in the Republic of Tuva, southern Siberia (late 7th to early 6th centuries BCE), through the methodological framework of the chaîne opératoire (operational sequence), in order to reconstruct the objects’ processes of manufacture. Through an interdisciplinary study of the finds at the State Hermitage in Saint Petersburg, the principal author analyzed tool marks and surface morphologies, which allow for the comprehensive identification and documentation of the numerous techniques employed in the creation of the often very elaborate jewelry, decorated weapons, and other personal ornaments. The production of both individual pieces and extensive series of thousands of identical trimmings attests to the existence of complex craft processes and workshop organizations. The technological aspects of the gold finds impress through their diversity and outstanding quality, both artistically and in terms of their craftsmanship. As this article will demonstrate, the objects present the earliest evidence for a highly specialized goldsmith artform in southern Siberia.

Technological researches of metal artefacts excavated from Majiayuan, Zhangjiachuan, Gansu Province, China

The Ma Jiayuan Tomb in Zhangjiachuan County, Gansu Province, stands as the sepulcher of a distinguished leader and nobles from a branch of the ancient Xirong, a collective term encompassing several ethnic groups in northwest ancient China. This archaeological site spans from the late Warring States period to the early Qin era. Among the myriad unearthed metal artefacts, a substantial portion comprises exquisite gold and silver objects, showcasing a diverse and intricate array of production techniques. These findings furnish compelling tangible evidence for the exploration of metalworking methodologies. This study rigorously scrutinizes 18 metal samples extracted from the M16 coffin of the Ma Jiayuan burial site dating to the late Warring States period (264-221BCE) in Zhangjiachuan County, Gansu Province, China. The analyses reveal that two copper artefacts were cast from copper-tin-lead alloys, whereas gold artefacts predominantly consisted of gold-silver alloys, and silver artefacts were chiefly crafted from pure silver and silver-gold alloys. Examination of the bronze artefacts suggests that artisans of this era tailored their technical choices based on the type and function of the artefacts they fashioned. The production techniques employed for gold and silver artefacts encompassed processes such as hammering, engraving, mold processing, stamping, polishing and inlaying. Notably, the distinct production methods and stylistic features of iron artefacts adorned with gold and silver, as well as animal-shaped gold artefacts unearthed from the coffin, probably reflect the influences of diverse cultures including the Southern Chu culture, Northern grassland culture, and Central Asian Altai culture on the vicinity of MaJiayuan. Through the fusion of these external cultural influences with their indigenous traditions, a distinctive civilization revolving around gold and silver objects was forged.

Communication and interaction between Central and Northern China: the archaeometallurgy perspective of the gold artefacts from Rui State

Communication and interaction between Central and Northern China: the archaeometallurgy perspective of the gold artefacts from Rui State

The Saka ‘Animal Style’ in Context: Material, Technology, Form and Use

The Iron Age Saka population of the eastern Eurasian Steppe is considered one of the earliest of the Scythian groups to emerge at the beginning of the 1st millennium BCE, consequently producing some of the earliest expressions of ‘animal style’ art. Recent excavations of burial mounds (kurgans) in the East Kazakhstan region have provided invaluable data on the depositional contexts of such objects. This paper combines contextual archaeological data and visual analysis with data on the chemical composition and technological production (through X-ray fluorescence and optical microscopy) of some of the gold artefacts from the Eleke Sazy funerary complex in East Kazakhstan. It is demonstrated that the positioning of wearable ornaments within undisturbed archaeological contexts can give vital information about their form and function, while evidence of production techniques and use-wear indicate the time investment and status the objects may have held. It is concluded that the Saka engaged in a complex process of design and execution of their art, depicting many different elements of the natural world. Further research is needed into understanding Saka lifeways and belief systems in relation to large-scale processes of climate change, land use, time, and society from securely dated and well-documented funerary and domestic archaeological contexts.

REICHE FRAUENGRÄBER DES 1. JAHRTAUSENDS V. CHR. IN SÜDWESTDEUTSCHLAND

Rich female graves in southwestern Germany are only recognisable archaeologically from about 600 B.C. onwards. During the Urnfield Culture and the Hallstatt C phase, male burials predominate among the rich graves. The earliest known female graves from the Western Hallstatt Culture to contain gold artefacts come from burial mounds 4 and 2 of the Bettelbühl cemetery near the Heuneburg. Furthermore, the discovery of tumulus 4, which contained a "princess grave" and the burial of a small girl, indicates that social rank and status at the Heuneburg were hereditary by at least the early 6th century BC.
 The female graves of the Bettelbühl necropolis represent the start of an early Celtic tradition which last for more than 250 years. One of the last examples of this tradition being the grave from Waldalgesheim, which dates to the decades around 300 BC. From the middle of the 2nd century BC onwards rich female graves are only sporadically attested in southwestern Germany.
 The rich female graves of Southwest Germany may be interpreted as representing members of an emerging aristocratic ruling class. The social importance and power of some women, which is attested archaeologically, was probably based on a matrilineal kinship or inheritance system. The archaeological sources indicate that these prominent women also held political and religious offices, and exercised power in their own right.

First evidence for the forging of gold in an Early Bronze Age Site of Central Europe (2200–1800 BCE)

Evidence of gold processing in the fortified site of Bruszczewo (Poland) is the first testimony of the production of gold artefacts in a domestic Early Bronze Age site of Central Europe. This paper highlights the potential of macrolithic tool ensembles as a key element for the recognition of metallurgical work processes. Moreover, it presents an optimised methodological approach to tackle the application of stone tools in metallurgical production, based on technological characterisation, use-wear analysis, portable X-ray fluorescence, transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Finally, the absence of gold sources in Central Europe raises the question about the origin of the metal, constituting an especially striking issue, as gold was a raw material of restricted access. As Bruszczewo was one of the few enclosed Early Bronze Age sites north of the Central European Mountain Range, the patterning of metal processing (including gold) sheds light on the mode of the production of metal artefacts, apparently restricted to central sites of power, which controlled the communication trails.

ABSOLUTE DATES OF ARTIFACTS FROM LUSATIAN URNFIELD CEMETERY AT BRZEZIE, GREATER POLAND

ABSTRACTBrzezie in the Pleszew region was first mentioned in archaeological literature, as the location where a treasure of gold artifacts dating back to the 3rd period of the Bronze Age was discovered in 1876. Archaeological research has been conducted there almost continuously since 1985. The result of many years of fieldwork is the discovery of 363 late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age graves, as well as 50 burials of the Przeworsk culture from the era of Roman influence. In the last few years, further research has been conducted by archeologist Grzegorz Szczurek. After comprehensive geophysical prospecting, the extent of the necropolis was established, and more graves were excavated. For the first time, materials for radiocarbon and luminescence dating were also collected to determine the absolute chronology for this archaeological site. Four samples were dated in the Poznań radiocarbon laboratory, and five luminescence tests were conducted in the Gliwice luminescence laboratory. Due to the complete thermo-destruction of collagen in human bones, age determination was based on carbonate fractionation. In one case, a piece of charcoal was selected for dating purposes. Considering uncertainties and the fact that both methods date different events, the results reveal concurrence, giving a 1000–500 BC range.

Analysis of copper-base and gold artifacts from the Phyi Dbang-Dung Kar site in western Tibet, China, 400 BCE–600 CE

Phyi Dbang-Dung Kar is one of the most important archaeological sites in western Tibet which lasted from the Bronze Age to the 16th century. Nomadic swords here provide new evidence of interaction outside the western Himalayas. These copper-base and gold artifacts were analyzed for their elemental, metallographic, and lead isotopic features. A comparative study suggests that the raw materials used changed over time and show few connections with Nepal or southwest China. However, similar copper-base and gold techniques were seen in Nepal and India. Even though direct trading is not confirmed, interaction regarding techniques in the western Himalayas is a possibility.

Combining X-ray Fluorescence and Monte Carlo Simulation Methods to Differentiate between Tumbaga and Gold-Alloy or Gildings.

Depleted metals have been produced since many centuries ago. Probably the most famous examples from ancient times are the so-called Tumbaga gold artifacts, whose production was introduced by the pre-Colombian civilizations. Tumbaga-like structures have been identified also in modern nanotechnological materials. In both cases, but specially for the ancient Tumbaga, due to their preciousness, their characterization should be obtained by non-destructive analysis. Several analytical protocols have been developed, some of them non-destructive, such as those based on X-ray Fluorescence, but the results obtained do not always allow for a reliable identification of Tumbaga with respect to gilding or single alloy samples. Besides the capability to distinguish between different structures of the sample, it is also important to obtain a quantitative estimation of its composition. In order to meet this demand, a new approach based on X-ray Fluorescence coupled to Monte Carlo simulations is proposed. It allows one to distinguish easily between the three manufacturing techniques and to quantify the composition of the sample without any destructive sampling. It constitutes a new tool for the study of complex alloy structures. The protocol is applied here to some ancient Tumbaga gold samples and is described in detail, comparing the results to those obtained with other techniques.

Technology, life histories and circulation of gold objects during the Middle Period (AD 400–1000): A perspective from the Atacama Desert, Chile

Studies of archaeological goldwork in the Americas are increasingly revealing a rich variety of context-specific ways in which gold items were produced and valued, but research attention has largely focused on visually striking artefacts. However, in the south-central Andes, goldwork is described essentially as a ‘sheet technology’—a definition that tends to downplay the potential complexity and cultural significance of this technology in such an extensive and varied region. Here, we employ a life-history approach to explore the existence of particular traditions within this large area. We present chemical and microscopic analyses, using pXRF, SEM–EDS, PIXE and digital microscopy, of 142 gold and silver objects from San Pedro de Atacama (northern Chile), recovered in seven cemeteries dated to the Middle Period (AD 400–1000). Our results reveal a heterogeneous assemblage where compositions, techniques, designs and skill levels vary, suggesting that gold artefacts circulated and were imported from different areas of the south-central Andes, such as Tiwanaku, Cochabamba and northwest Argentina. We also identify for the first time two distinct technological traditions used in San Pedro: small-scale goldwork production, and a tradition of modifying and reusing imported objects by cutting, perforating and separating object parts. Considering the depositional contexts, we propose that the funerary ritual at San Pedro was a key factor in the development of this local goldwork. Our research demonstrates that even small and unimpressive artefacts can be successfully interrogated from archaeological perspectives with integrative approaches that go beyond overly generalising perspectives of gold as an exotic status marker.

Weight regulation in British and Irish Bronze Age gold objects: a reanalysis and reinterpretation

Sophisticated metrological systems were common in the European Bronze Age and mass-regulation has been argued for various classes of object, including gold artefacts. A recent study published in Antiquity used Cosine Quantogram Analysis to demonstrate mass-regulation in a small sample of gold objects from Britain, Ireland and France. Since then, substantial quantities of new data from British Bronze Age gold objects have been collated. Here, the author presents the results of Cosine Quantogram Analysis on nearly 1000 such objects—the largest sample analysed to date. The results demonstrate that, even though some regularities can be discerned, mass-regulation is no longer a tenable interpretation of gold objects from Bronze Age Britain.

Analytical approach of colour and elemental composition in gold metallic objects from the Quimbaya culture: A case study in Antioquia, Colombia

Colour has been an outstanding feature in the Quimbaya culture. This attribute was related to its gold artifacts and alloys. However, few studies have provided insight into the relationship between gold contents and colour in these pre-Hispanic artifacts. As an initial approach to evaluate these characteristics, in this paper the elemental composition and surface colouration of ten pre-Hispanic goldwork samples found in Antioquia-Colombia, belonging to the early and late Quimbaya culture, were studied. Thisstudy was done using portable and non-destructive experimental techniques such as energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy - EDXRF and UV–Vis fibre optic spectrophotometry. The results indicated that mostpieces contained the elements Au, Ag and Cu, with the highest concentration being Cu (∼18% – 40%) in seven of the samples tested. At first glance, colour changes due to elemental concentrations are noticeable in all objects. To verify those changes, a colourimetric analysis was performed through optical reflectance spectrum analysis, using a new empirical model written in MATLAB. The software allows the processing of all reflectance spectra and estimates the colourimetric parameters (a *, b *, C *, L *, h *). We found that the spectra are sensitive to changes in elemental concentrations other than gold and copper (Ag and Cu). According to the colourimetric parameters a* and b*, two groups of objects associated with early and late temporality are differentiated. The results reveal a correlation between the hue (h*) and the Au and Cu concentrations.

ARCHAEOMETRIC CHARACTERIZATION OF A GROUP OF GOLD JEWELRY FROM THE DIYARBAKIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL MUSEUM

Jewelry is a material relic that people have used for various purposes and assigned various meanings to from the past to the present. Jewelry allows us to identify people's beliefs, cultures, social relationships, and even the technologies they used during the time they were made. With the discovery of mines and the advancement of technology, jewelry made from ready-made materials found in nature in the early periods has been replaced by precious metals, stones, and alternative materials. Gold jewelry and jewelry pieces acquired through purchase and confiscation have been examined at the Diyarbakir Archaeological Museum to observe this change. The artifacts cannot be dated because they have not been discovered through systematic excavations and the context in which they had been discovered is unidentified. Furthermore, because there is no method for archaeometrically dating gold artifacts, national and international jewelry catalogues, articles, and theses written on jewelry have been studied in the dating of jewelry covered by the study. Following these reviews, visual comparisons have been used to determine the possible dates of the jewelry. The chemical composition of the gold jewelry and jewelry pieces has been determined using the Portable Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence spectrometer (P-EDXRF) after visual descriptions of the gold jewelry and jewelry pieces have been made. It has been attempted here to comprehend how the gold ratio in jewelry changes on periodically basis in this study, 17 gold artifacts have been introduced, and the analysis results have been interpreted. When the overall chemical composition of the artifacts has been examined, gold + silver and gold + silver + copper content has been determined as a result of the analysis. The gold content in pre-Roman jewelry has been lower than in Roman jewelry, and the majority of the artifacts have been electrum, according to periodic comparisons of the contents of these alloys. It was acknowledged that in ancient gold production technology that artifacts have been produced by using the element of gold and alloys in which the ratio of gold was reduced together with silver. This tradition is found to be coincided with the artifacts after 2800 BC, when gold production began, and the Lydian Period (7th century BC and later), when the separation of gold and silver has been discovered.

Social agency and prestige technology: serial production of gold appliqués in the early Iron Age north-west China and the Eurasian steppes

ABSTRACT Recent discoveries in north-west China and the Central Asian steppes have shed new light on the study of power display and material connections amongst nomadic groups during the development of gold-making technology in Iron Age Eurasia. Bringing together material science and archaeological approaches, this paper presents an interdisciplinary study of serially produced gold artefacts recovered from the elite burials of north-west China, to gain a better understanding of the inventive nature of early gold-making industry. In particular, we find that the technology used to craft the gold appliqués found in the Xigou cemetery (3rd-2nd centuries BCE) in north-west China attested to the use of moulds or matrices for serial production, closely linked to technological practice of the central Asians steppes. We consider the spread of the peculiar technique and iconography as a tangible way to examine technology transfer and cultural interactions. The contextual analysis reveals that the mould-pressing technique, the animal-style gold artefacts, and the burial practice of using prestigious gold as body adornment constitute a shared set of material expressions of the status and power of nomadic elites in north-west China, Kazakhstan and southern Siberia. Technological practice, in turn, opens up new research avenues in the field, recalibrating our recognition and understanding the active involvement of material objects in human life and culture.

Revealing ancient gold parting with silver and copper isotopes: implications from cementation experiments and for the analysis of gold artefacts

Gold parting enabled the production of very pure gold for various purposes from the sixth century BC onwards, but analytical proof of this pyrotechnical process is difficult. We describe a new analytical approach for the identification of purified gold combining silver and copper isotopic with trace element analyses. Parting experiments were performed with gold-silver-copper alloys using the classical salt cementation process to investigate potential silver and copper isotope fractionation and changes in trace element concentrations. In addition, we provide the first comprehensive dataset of silver isotope ratios of archaeological gold objects from the Mediterranean and Central Europe to test whether or not gold refining can be identified on the basis of isotope systematics. The results show that very heavy silver and copper isotopic compositions are clear evidence for parted gold, but that the application of copper isotopes might be limited.

Heterogeneous Production and Enchained Consumption: Minoan Gold in a Changing World (ca. 2000 BCE)

Early and Middle Minoan goldwork has sparked numerous studies, with particular emphasis on possible foreign influences and the role of gold in the development of social hierarchies. This paper contends that the value and uses of gold can only be understood in connection to the broader organization of production and distribution. Through a biographical approach, we focus on the high-resolution study, including chemical and microscopic analyses, of 90 samples from gold assemblages found at Mochlos, Sissi, and Hagios Charalambos. Our results show that beneath the apparent simplicity in designs and techniques, there is a variety of technological choices and skill levels that are suggestive of the involvement of multiple hands. Our technical analyses reveal objects with long life histories of uses, reuses, and repairs, as well as instances of deliberate fragmentation through cutting, tearing, or separation of object parts. With complex life histories of shared production, curation, reuse, fragmentation, and recontextualization that did not conclude with burial, gold artifacts connected the dead and the living in a way that strengthened predominantly horizontal relationships. This evidence should therefore be considered in discussions of the emergence of social complexity. Our approach shows promise for studies of life histories of metalwork elsewhere.

Technology, Use and Reuse of Gold during the Middle Period: The Case of Casa Parroquial, Atacama Desert, Chile

The life-histories of gold artefacts can provide rich insight into technology and culture, but so far the potential of this research approach has not been exploited in the south central Andes. Here we present the analysis of 34 gold and silver objects from the Middle Period cemetery of Casa Parroquial (San Pedro de Atacama, northern Chile), using pXRF, SEM-EDS, PIXE and digital microscopy. Chemical analyses detected variable compositions (2.4–73.1 per cent Ag and 0.2–3.4 per cent Cu) suggesting that artisans used both native gold and artificial gold-silver-copper alloys. Based on their manufacturing techniques, quality and designs, we identify two working styles, one technically more ‘careful’ than the other. Given their elemental and technological variety, together with the lack of local production evidence, we propose that these artefacts were imported as finished objects from Tiwanaku or Cochabamba and northwest Argentina. However, we identify a series of objects that were modified or reshaped as they entered a new cultural context, revealing complex life-histories. Modifications used relatively simple mechanical means: punching, cutting and folding, most likely made in multi-craft contexts by non-metallurgists from San Pedro.

China and the steppe: technological study of precious metalwork from\xa0Xigoupan\xa0Tomb 2 (4th\u20133rd c. BCE) in the Ordos region, Inner Mongolia

Technology employed by the ancient goldsmiths is traceable through archaeometallurgy. Using non-destructive analytical methods, namely, a 3D digital microscopy and a scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectrometer (SEM–EDS), we investigated the manufacturing techniques and chemical composition of gold and silver artefacts recovered from Tomb 2 (M2), the richest find from Xigoupan cemetery (fourth-third century BCE) in the northern part of Jungar Banner, Inner Mongolia. The present research contributes to a better understanding of the inventive nature of precious metal working industry in early China (eighth-third century BCE). First, cultural interchange was evidenced in the metalwork examined, notably as being closely linked to techniques emerging from the Eurasian steppes. In Xigoupan M2, the ornamentation of sheet works in the Scytho-Siberian animal style was seen to be clearly influenced by the central Asian steppe goldsmithing practice, while certain cast items were typical of the Chinese tradition. Second, our analysis reveals that the gold appliqués with raised animal figures that were previously thought to be repoussé work have actually been made with double-sided carving. We consider such a new technology as one of local inventions that was inspired by methods arriving from the central Asian steppes. In addition, our analysis of elemental composition reveals that the gold artefacts found in Xigoupan M2 to be made of natural gold, while the horse harness ornament is made of pure silver. These results, combined with the study of the existing data pertaining to comparable examples, attest to the shared craftsmanship in prestige metal production across the northern Chinese states, especially with regard to the pre-imperial period Qin workshop.

Identification of patterns of crystal-chemical transformations in historical artifacts made of metals

The theoretical substantiation of the process of elimination of individual chemical elements from crystal lattices of metals in the process of the crystal-chemical transformations taking place during the long history of artifact existence was given. To confirm the theoretical conclusions, five ancient gold items from different historical periods (from the IV century B.C. to the XVIII century A.D.) with approximately the same contents of gold, silver, copper, and iron in the alloy body were studied. The conducted studies will promote more exact attribution of historical artifacts made of metals and revealing the signs of forgery or restoration.
 The chemical composition of items was determined immediately under patina and in the alloy body using a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy dispersion spectrometer. The results have shown a much lower gold content inside the alloy than in the item surface. At the same time, the undamaged surface cleansed of mineral crusts contained significantly fewer impurities than the polished surface which did not have contact with the environment. Therefore, the study of the chemical composition of gold artifacts cannot be conducted solely based on surface studies.
 The studies have resulted in establishing a dependence of the concentration of the main component (gold) of the alloy in the artifact surface on the item age in thousands of years. Equations for predicting the age of the items that are chemically belonging to the described item group were also presented.
 Studies of peculiarities of crystal-chemical processes are very important in practice to prove the historical artifact authenticity, adjust artifact dating, identify signs of forgery or profound changes caused by restoration