Goat Ownership Research Articles

Goat health and management for improved smallholders’ livelihoods in central Malawi – A socioeconomic analysis of rural households

The true value of goats, their management systems, and the limitations of smallholdings have not been fully explored in the context of sustainable livelihoods among rural smallholders in central Malawi. However, goats are an essential part of rural livelihoods as transferable assets and sources of household nutrition, especially at times of food insecurity aligned to an ever more variable climate. To study the impact and limitations of goat ownership in Malawi’s Lilongwe district, surveys were performed across four villages covering 148 households from October-November 2019. Surveys were designed to identify linkages between household demographics, livelihoods, goat ownership, and management practices. Findings revealed goats are highly valued compared to other livestock. However, herds were small (median = 3) with only 62% reported kidding in the last year, while 50% reported deaths due to diseases, predation (such as by hyenas), and dog bites. Odds-ratio analyses identified farmers (as a primary occupation) were more likely to successfully breed goats to increase their herd size. Larger herds were associated with those who could accumulate wealth and utilise goats for ceremonies. However, diseases were a major contributor to losses and increased the risk of household food insecurity. Limiting disease impacts through anthelmintics and supplementation were correlated to an increased likelihood of sustainable offtake from smallholdings and improved livelihoods. With limited access to veterinary services, smallholders utilise a diversity of medicinal plants and ash to treat diarrhoea in their herd. The results highlight that goat security and health is fundamental to realising smallholding livelihood gains. Future efforts should aim to empower smallholders through providing tools to monitor goat health and to assess the effects of local practices, including the use of medicinal plants, for goat health.

The utilisation of domestic goats in rural and peri-urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa

Goats are a common ruminant in livestock husbandry systems in communal areas of southern Africa, but less so in peri-urban areas. While dynamics of goat farming in the former are relatively well-understood, little is known about it in peri-urban environments. We investigated the contribution of small-scale farming of goats to household livelihoods in rural and peri-urban areas in KwaZulu-Natal Province of South Africa. We used a semi-structured questionnaire survey to elicit views of 115 respondents on the contribution of goats to household income at two rural (Kokstad, Msinga) and two peri-urban (Howick, Pietermaritzburg) locations. Goats contributed to household income as a source of cash and meat in various sociocultural contexts such as at weddings, funerals and festive period gatherings (e.g. Easter and Christmas), including payment for household needs and expenses including food, school fees and medico-cultural consultations. These findings were more pronounced in rural areas, where more goats were kept than in peri-urban areas, which also had smaller herds per household. Goats were a source of cash in numerous ways including sales of their skins after slaughter and use of skins through value addition to make household craft items such as stools that could be sold for cash. None of the farmers milked their goats. Goat famers also kept cattle (52%), sheep (23%) and chickens (67%). Goat ownership appeared to be more profitable in rural areas and contributed to a lesser extent as a source of income in peri-urban areas where goats were largely kept for sale. There is potential for increased value addition of goat products to increase returns from small-scale goat farming in rural and peri-urban settings. Artefacts and cultural symbols derived from goat products are pervasive amongst Zulu people, and represent an additional avenue of research into ‘hidden’ valuation of goats.

Development of kaligesing etawah crossbreed goat in Purworejo Central Java Province

This study aims to analyze the development of Kaligesing Etawah crossbreed goat in Purworejo Regency through community-based resource management approach, with the specific aims of assessing the condition of Kaligesing goat related to natural increase, examining the role of local government in determining the policy of developing Kaligesing goat in Purworejo, and recommending strategies in the development of Kaligesing goat through community-based resource management approach. The method used was a triangulation methods which include observation, survey and document study. The results showed that social-demographic such as education of farmers, goat ownership and land ownership were low level and natural increase of Kaligesing goat based on percentage of births per year and percentage of deaths per year was 45. 51%. The role of the government in determining the policy of developing Kaligesing goats in Purworejo is the Decree of the Purworejo Regency No. 188.4 of 1989 concerning the preservation of Kaligesing Goat, in addition to the Decree of the Minister of Agriculture of the Republic of Indonesia No. 2591 / Kpts / PD.400 / 7/2010 dated July 19, 2010, determination of Kaligesing Goat as a local strain of Central Java. The recommended strategies that need to be carried out are: strengthening the Kaligesing goat farmer group in terms of maintenance and marketing management, self-economic strengthening by establishing farmers’ cooperatives, establishing market information centers managed by groups or cooperatives to make it easier for farmers to obtain information about selling prices, popularize recording / livestock records so as to tighten the entry of breeds from outside the region, ensure the availability of feed land in areas that can grow feed crops and the processing and preservation of forage crops.

Small Ruminant Production and Marketing Practices in Harawa, Somali Region, Ethiopia

Small ruminant production is an essential component of agricultural activity for smallholder farmers. The aim of this study was to assess small ruminant production and marketing practices in the Harawa district of Somali Region, Ethiopia. For the study 90 households owning small ruminant were selected from three different towns of Harawa district. Information on sheep and goat ownership patterns, production objectives, and management and production constraints were collected from 90 households using semi structured questionnaires. The available feed resources are grass species, crop aftermath and legumes species are the common ones. The average family size was 5.78 ± 0.235 persons per household. Crop-livestock farming was the commonly used farming system with (62.75%) extensive and (27.25%) semi-intensive production system. The mean total land holding was 6.08 ± 0.24 ha per HH and was significantly (P is important.

Farmers' perceptions of grassland management in Magui Khola basin of Madi Chitwan, Nepal

Management of grassland is one of the important factors in traditional livestock farming systems. A survey was conducted in Madi of Chitwan Nepal to understand the perceptions of the farmers/graziers about grassland and feed management. For that, a well-prepared pretested set of questionnaires was used to collect information related to feeds and grassland ecological knowledge of the farmers. The questionnaire consisted of a set of questions about the household, factors affecting grassland productivity and alternative feeding resources. The survey revealed variations in household livestock ownerships, mostly for cattle (1–3) and buffalo (1–5), whilst goat ownership was similar across the survey sites. Grazing duration in months was similar in the study sites (about 7 months per year). Likewise, there was no conflict for grazing livestock, whereas it is believed that goat and buffalo have the same level of detrimental effect on grassland. A significantly higher number of respondents reported that flooding had a negative impact (p = 0.032) on grassland productivity. The Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv. locally known as Siru was a dominant forage species followed by the mosaics of Saccharum spontaneum L. locally known as Kaans in Nepali and Jhaksi in Tharu language, Saccharum bengalense Retz. locally known as Baruwa in Nepali and Narkat in the Tharu language. The respondents also pointed out that at least 2 to 3 years were needed for the recovery of grasslands when hampered by flooding and riverbank cut-off. Similar species dominated in the recovered grasslands over time of flooding. The seasonal fodder plantation was a major area of grassland improvement issue across the survey sites. There were high dependencies of the graziers on natural herbages and crop residues for feeding livestock in summer and winter, though the herbage species and preferences remained different. This study provides the primary background of the biophysical factors of grassland management for sustainable uses that require institutional support. The study further provides an insight into the need for implementation of the demand-based grassland technology interventions, possibly at a higher rate of adoption than the current local scale. However, the social-ecological consequences of grassland systems, i.e. the impact of climate change, herd dynamics and nutrient flow in vegetation and soil, have to be monitored in a long run.

Ruminant-Related Risk Factors are Associated with Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Infection in Children in Southern Ghana.

Livestock can provide benefits to low-income households, yet may expose children to zoonotic enteropathogens that cause illness and negative long-term health outcomes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to determine whether livestock-related risk factors, including animal ownership, exposure to animal feces, and consumption of animal-source foods, were associated with bacterial zoonotic enteropathogen infections in children 6-59 months old in Greater Accra, Ghana. Stool samples from 259 children and 156 household chickens were analyzed for atypical enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (aEPEC), Campylobacter jejuni/coli (C. jejuni/coli), Salmonella, and Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). aEPEC, C. jejuni/coli, STEC, and Salmonella were detected in 45.6%, 11.6%, 4.3%, and 0.8% of children's stool samples, respectively. In adjusted logistic regression models, household ownership of goats or sheep was associated with STEC detection in children (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]: 4.30 [1.32, 14.08]), as were positive detection of STEC in chicken feces (7.85 [2.54, 24.30]) and frequent consumption of fresh cow's milk (3.03 [1.75, 5.24]). No livestock-related risk factors were associated with aEPEC or C. jejuni/coli infection in children. Our findings suggest that ruminant ownership in southern Ghana may expose children to STEC through household fecal contamination and foodborne routes. The lack of association between livestock risk factors and the more commonly detected pathogens, aEPEC and C. jejuni/coli, warrants further research, particularly to help explain how animal-keeping and sanitation practices affect transmission of fecal pathogens that were highly prevalent in chicken feces.

Epidemiology of soil-transmitted helminth infections in Semarang, Central Java, Indonesia.

Soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are endemic in Indonesia. However, prevalence data for many parts of the country are incomplete. The aim of this study was to determine human STH prevalence and knowledge and practices relating to STH risk behaviour, to provide a current view of the status of STH infection in rural communities in Central Java. A cross-sectional survey of 16 villages was conducted in Semarang, Central Java in 2015. Demographic and household data together with information about knowledge and practices relating to STH and hygiene were elicited through face-to-face interviews. Stool samples were collected and examined using the flotation method. Children (aged 2–12 years) also had their haemoglobin (Hb) levels, height and weight data collected, and BMI estimated. Data were analysed using univariate logistic regression analysis. A total of 6,466 individuals with a mean age of 33.5 years (range: 2–93) from 2,195 households were interviewed. The overall prevalence of STH was 33.8% with Ascaris lumbricoides (roundworm) the predominant nematode identified (prevalence = 26.0%). Hookworm and Trichuris trichiura (whipworm) were found in 7.9% and 1.8% of participants, respectively. Females were at increased odds of infection with A. lumbricoides (adjusted OR 1.14, 95% CI [1.02–1.29], p = 0.02). Adults in age groups 51–60 and over 60 years had the highest odds of being infected with hookworm (adjusted OR 3.01, 95% CI [1.84–4.91], p<0.001 and adjusted OR 3.79, 95% CI [2.30–6.26], p<0.001, respectively) compared to 6–12 year olds. Farmers also had higher odds of being infected with hookworm (adjusted OR 2.36, 95% CI [1.17–4.76], p = 0.02) compared to other occupation categories. Poverty (OR 2.14, 95% CI [1.77–2.58], p<0.001), overcrowding (OR 1.35, 95% CI [1.27–1.44], p<0.001), goat ownership (OR 1.61, 95% CI [1.10–2.41], p = 0.02) and the presence of dry floor space in the home (OR 0.73, 95% CI [0.58–0.91], p = 0.01) were all household factors significantly associated with an increased odds of infection. Infection with STH was not significantly associated with the gastrointestinal illness (p>0.05), BMI or Hb levels; however, one third of all 2–12 year olds surveyed were found to be anaemic (i.e. Hb concentrations below 110g/l or 115g/l for children under 5 and 5 years or older, respectively), with a greater proportion of school-age children at risk. Knowledge and behaviour related to hygiene and gastrointestinal diseases varied widely and were generally not associated with STH infection. The study revealed that STH infection remains endemic in Central Java despite ongoing deworming programs. Current control efforts would benefit from being re-evaluated to determine a more effective way forward.

Flock ownership pattern of goats in Idah local government area of Kogi State, Nigeria

Questionnaires were used to obtain data on goat ownership from farmers, determine socio-economic characteristics of owners, identify management system, identify sources of stock and reasons for keeping goats in Idah Local Government Area (LGA) of Kogi State, Nigeria. One hundred (100) goat owners randomly selected from the council wards in the LGA were interviewed using questionnaires. Ninety-two (92) questionnaires were recovered from the field. Data collected included demographic information on the respondents, management practices, herd size, choice of management system, sources of feed and stock, and preference for a particular species. 58.7% of the respondents were male while 41.3% female. 46.8% were married, 9.8% widowed, 29.3% single and 14.1% divorced. Most of the goat owners were between 20-30 years old (26.8%), 22.9% 31-40 years old, 10.9 51-60 years old. 8.7% had primary level education, 18.5% secondary school education and 37% tertiary education. Majority of the respondents (43.6%) had herd sizes between 1-10, with 83.7% of the goats being male and 75.1% female. Management system was mostly extensive (59.8%). Patterns of housing for goats are the open space (53.3%), low cost (18.3%) and open type with run space (23.3%). Choice of housing and management system is dueto low cost. Sources of feed for goats varied from crop residues (30.4%), purchase (10.9%), cut and carry (28.3%) and a combination of crop residue and cut and purchase (30.4%). 40.2%obtained their stock through purchase. It is concluded that goat rearing is practiced by all age groups and gender, most of whom were literate. Management system was mostly extensive due to its convenience in terms of labour and capital requirements.

Are goats the new elephants in the room? Changing land-use strategies in Greater Mara, Kenya

Land privatization and rapid land-use transformation are drastically reducing the pristine eco-cultural habitat across vast areas of East Africa. To avert what could become a classic tragedy of the commons, comprehensive solutions are needed. To date the conservancy model has provided a viable solution for securing long-term sustainable integration of cattle management alongside wildlife conservation. But new groundbreaking research shows that cattle numbers are stagnating and that flocks of sheep/goats are expanding on an unprecedented scale. We argue that the risks posed by increased numbers of sheep and goats have not been adequately recognized, since sheep and goat management bypasses the traditional approaches to thinking and governing land in the Greater Mara. Sheep and goat ownership therefore has the potential to develop disproportionately if they are not immediately integrated into conservancy management policies.

Study of Goat Herdering System in Sawohan Village, Buduran District, Sidoarjo

The aim of this research was to evaluate and analyze goat herdering system in group of goat “Oro-oro” in Sawohan Village, Buduran District, Sidoarjo. This research was conducted by case study method, using 5 members of goat farmers “Oro-oro” with 298 goats. The results of this study indicate that the average number of goat ownership was more than 50 head/farmer. The goat breed that raising by the farmers was Kacang goats. Average daily gains was 53.32 + 36.01 gram, litter size 1.34 + 0.51 head, mean of kidding interval 7,41 + 0,99 month and mortality of kid prenatal period was 20,4%. From this research can be concluded that productivity of goat in Sawohan village was good with herdering system, so it can be used as one of alternative in developing goat farming system in other area.

Sistem Produksi dan Potensi Ekonomi Peternakan Kambing Lokal Bligon di Desa Girimulo, Kecamatan Panggang, Gunungkidul

&lt;p&gt;&lt;em&gt;This study was aimed to determine the economic potential and factors that influenced&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt; &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;to the income of the Bligon local goat farming in Girimulyo Village, Panggang sub District of Gunungkidul. &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;Data was collected from 30 Bligon goat farmers in the study area which taken purposively as the respondents. Data were collected by direct in-depth interviews to the respondents using questionnaires.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt; Both quantitative and qualitative data were analysed.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt; Enterprise Budgeting was made to analyze the economic potential of Bligon goat farming in the form of net farm income and return to labor and management on the production system that farmers doing.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt; &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;Furthermore, to determine the factors that influence the income of farmers using multiple regression analysis&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;. &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;The results showed that the Bligon goat farming with average maintenance of 2 heads of productive females and 1 head fattening male can give net farm income of Rp &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;936.463&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;, - or in the form of return to labor and management amounting to Rp &lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;2.380.241,-&lt;/em&gt;&lt;em&gt;/ farmer/ year. Factors that significantly positive have affect to the farmer income were number of goat ownership (P&amp;lt;0,05) and litter size (P&amp;lt;0,01), while mortality have negative effect (P&amp;lt;0,5). The Bligon goat farming was a potential alternative that can developed to generate income for rural communities. However, it is a challenge for scientists to develop technologies that support the improvement of production aspects associated with kidding interval, litter size and mortality.&lt;/em&gt;&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt; &lt;/p&gt;

Open defecation explains differences in nutritional status between Bengali and tribal children in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh

ABSTRACTObjective: We describe differences in linear growth as measured by height-for-age z-score (HAZ) between children from Bengali and tribal populations in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh and examine factors associated with HAZ in both groups.Design: We used nutritional surveillance data collected in Bangladesh from 2003 to 2006 to analyze HAZ among 12,006 children aged 6–23 months and conducted multivariate linear regression and Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to quantify the relative contribution of independent variables to differences in HAZ between Bengali and tribal children.Results: Mean HAZ was stable for Bengali children (−1.88 in 2003 to −1.90 in 2006) but improved for tribal children (−1.87 in 2003 to −1.68 in 2006). The difference between groups was significant across the study period (p = 0.008). Among Bengali children, HAZ was positively associated with father’s schooling (β = 0.221; 95% CI: 0.079–0.363). Among tribal children, HAZ was positively associated with consumption of animal source foods (β = 0.073; 95% CI: 0.051–0.096) and goat ownership (β = 0.240; 95% CI: 0.025–0.454). Results of a likelihood ratio test indicated that distance to a health center was inversely associated with HAZ among tribal children (p < 0.001). Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition demonstrated a difference in pooled coefficients between groups (p = 0.004), explained primarily by differences in coefficients for paternal education (p = 0.001) and village-level prevalence of open defecation (p = 0.004).Conclusions: Different responses among Bengali and tribal children to village-level open defecation are an explanatory factor for the difference in HAZ between Bengali and tribal populations. Open defecation may also act a proxy for unmeasured factors such as household environmental conditions and food hygiene.Abbreviations: Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT); height-for-age z-scores (HAZ); Nutrition Surveillance Project (NSP); World Health Organization (WHO)

Grade Kambing Peranakan Ettawa pada Kondisi Wilayah yang Berbeda

&lt;p&gt;This study aimed to determine the grade of Ettawa crossbred goats reared in lowland&lt;br /&gt;(coastal) areas at Wates subdistrict and highland (mountainous) areas at Pengasih subdistrict, Kulonprogo. Respondents were drawn from goat breeders who live in the village Karangwuni for lowland areas and villages Sidomulyo for highland, with the ownership of goats ranged between 2 and 20. This study used survey method, and a sample of respondents was taken by the census methods. In general, body size of goats both in lowland and highland areas were below the average standard. Some body size of goats in highland areas were higher than lowland. Based on the qualitative characteristic of the goats in lowland and highland areas were included in grade B, it has characteristics that fulfil the standards and harmonious balance, but the weight and size of the body is below the average. It can be concluded that the body sizes goat in mountain areas is higher than in the beach with a grade goat for both locations is B.&lt;br /&gt;Key words : Ettawa cossbred goats, grade, coastal area, mountains region&lt;/p&gt;

Grade Kambing Peranakan Ettawa pada Kondisi Wilayah yang Berbeda

&lt;p&gt;This study aimed to determine the grade of Ettawa crossbred goats reared in lowland&lt;br /&gt;(coastal) areas at Wates subdistrict and highland (mountainous) areas at Pengasih subdistrict, Kulonprogo. Respondents were drawn from goat breeders who live in the village Karangwuni for lowland areas and villages Sidomulyo for highland, with the ownership of goats ranged between 2 and 20. This study used survey method, and a sample of respondents was taken by the census methods. In general, body size of goats both in lowland and highland areas were below the average standard. Some body size of goats in highland areas were higher than lowland. Based on the qualitative characteristic of the goats in lowland and highland areas were included in grade B, it has characteristics that fulfil the standards and harmonious balance, but the weight and size of the body is below the average. It can be concluded that the body sizes goat in mountain areas is higher than in the beach with a grade goat for both locations is B.&lt;br /&gt;Key words : Ettawa cossbred goats, grade, coastal area, mountains region&lt;/p&gt;

Nonnative Cattle Ownership, Diet, and Child Height-for-Age: Evidence from the 2011 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey.

In underresourced settings where domestic animals and children often cohabitate, there is limited evidence about the net impact of domestic animal ownership on child health. We analyzed the 2011 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey to determine whether household ownership of native cattle, goats, sheep, chickens, pigs, and nonnative cattle was associated with child height-for-age z-scores (HAZ), and to assess the influence of diet on this association in rural and urban environments. Using weighted multivariable linear regression, we found that nonnative cattle ownership was positively associated with HAZ in rural children 0 to < 2 years of age (+1.32 standard deviations [SD], 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.2-2.5) and 2 to < 5 years of age (+0.58 SD, 95% CI = 0.003-1.2), and urban children 2 to < 5 years of age (+1.08 SD, 95% CI = 0.38-1.8). Sheep ownership was positively associated with HAZ in rural children 2 to < 5 years of age (+0.29 SD, 95% CI = 0.002-0.58) and goat ownership was positively associated with HAZ in rural children 0 to < 2 years of age (+0.27 SD, 95% CI = 0.003-0.55). We observed no other significant associations. Children who lived in households that owned nonnative cattle consumed dairy more frequently; however, the relationship between child HAZ and nonnative cattle ownership was not mediated by child dairy consumption. These findings suggest that domestic animal ownership may not be detrimental to child HAZ, and that nonnative cattle ownership is beneficial for child HAZ through pathways other than dairy consumption.

A gendered analysis of goat ownership and marketing in Meru, Kenya

Studies show that women are more likely to own small, rather than, large livestock. This study sought to establish gendered preference for different livestock species while focusing on the gendered differences in ownership, management, and marketing of goats in Meru, Kenya. Men demonstrated a higher preference for cattle than women, who had a higher preference for poultry than men. Men and women preferred goats equally, but women derived and managed more income from goats than men. Development projects should apply a gender lens before introducing different livestock species as gender differences exist in the preference and the management of different livestock.

Characteristics of Traditional Small Ruminant Production and Management in Awbare District of Ethiopian Somali Regional State

A survey was conducted to assess traditional sheep and goat production and management practices in aware district of fafan zones of Somali Region, eastern Ethiopia from September to December 2014. Information on sheep and goat ownership patterns, production objectives, and management and production constraints were collected from 60 households using semi structured questionnaires. About 80% of the respondents kept sheep and goats for family welfare, whereas 20% of them reared their sheep for market. About 58% of the pastoralists bred their animals during wet season. Home-grown forage production was not a common practice in the areas and the pastoralists totally depended on natural pasture as source of feed for ruminants. About 70% of the interviewed pastoralists used natural mineral soil while 16% used both Carro (local name for natural mineral soil) and common salt. With regard to housing, about 63% of the respondents housed sheep in the open house (kraal) at night. Shortage of feed and water, especially during drought period was found to be the major constraint to sheep and goat production due to which the highest death was report.

Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis: a case control study in north-western Ethiopia.

BackgroundVisceral leishmaniasis (VL, also called ‘’kala-azar”), is a life threatening neglected tropical infectious disease which mainly affects the poorest of the poor. VL is prevalent in Ethiopia particularly in the northwest of the country. Understanding the risk factors of VL infection helps in its prevention and control. The aim of the present study was to identify the factors associated with VL.MethodsA case–control study was carried out during the period of January-July 2013 in northwest Ethiopia. Cases and controls were diagnosed using clinical presentation, the rk39 rapid diagnostic test and Direct Agglutination Test (DAT). A total of 283 (84.8% males versus 15.2% females) participants were interviewed. 90 cases and 193 controls were involved, matched by age, sex and geographical location with a ratio of 1:2 (case: controls). Univariate and backward multivariate conditional logistic regression were used to identify risk factors of VL.ResultsElevated odds of VL was associated with goat ownership (OR = 6.4; 95%: confidence interval [Cl]: 1.5-28.4), living in houses with cracked wall (OR = 6.4; 95% Cl: 1.6-25.6), increased family size (OR = 1.3; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.8) and the number of days spent in the farm field (OR = 1.1; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.2). However, daily individual activities around the home and farm fields, mainly sleeping on a bed (OR = 0.2; 95%: Cl 0.03-0.9), sleeping outside the house under a bed net (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.02-0.36)] and smoking plant parts in the house during the night time (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.01-0.6) were associated with decreased odds of being VL case.ConclusionOur findings showed that use of bed net and smoke could be helpful for the prevention of VL in the area particularly among individuals who spend most of their time in the farm. VL control effort could be focused on improving housing conditions, such as sealing cracks and crevices inside and outside houses. Further research is warranted to elucidate the role of goats in the transmission of L. donovani, assess the impact of bed nets and the role of the traditional practice of smoking plants.

Risk factors of visceral leishmaniasis: a case control study in north-western Ethiopia

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL, also called “kala-azar”), is a life threatening neglected tropical infectious disease which mainly affects the poorest of the poor. VL is prevalent in Ethiopia particularly in the northwest of the country. Understanding the risk factors of VL infection helps in its prevention and control. The aim of the present study was to identify the factors associated with VL. A case–control study was carried out during the period of January-July 2013 in northwest Ethiopia. Cases and controls were diagnosed using clinical presentation, the rk39 rapid diagnostic test and Direct Agglutination Test (DAT). A total of 283 (84.8% males versus 15.2% females) participants were interviewed. 90 cases and 193 controls were involved, matched by age, sex and geographical location with a ratio of 1:2 (case: controls). Univariate and backward multivariate conditional logistic regression were used to identify risk factors of VL. Elevated odds of VL was associated with goat ownership (OR = 6.4; 95%: confidence interval [Cl]: 1.5-28.4), living in houses with cracked wall (OR = 6.4; 95% Cl: 1.6-25.6), increased family size (OR = 1.3; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.8) and the number of days spent in the farm field (OR = 1.1; 95% Cl: 1.0-1.2). However, daily individual activities around the home and farm fields, mainly sleeping on a bed (OR = 0.2; 95%: Cl 0.03-0.9), sleeping outside the house under a bed net (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.02-0.36)] and smoking plant parts in the house during the night time (OR = 0.1; 95% Cl: 0.01-0.6) were associated with decreased odds of being VL case. Our findings showed that use of bed net and smoke could be helpful for the prevention of VL in the area particularly among individuals who spend most of their time in the farm. VL control effort could be focused on improving housing conditions, such as sealing cracks and crevices inside and outside houses. Further research is warranted to elucidate the role of goats in the transmission of L. donovani, assess the impact of bed nets and the role of the traditional practice of smoking plants.

The ‘youth and agriculture’ problem: implications for rangeland development

There is a common perception in South Africa that the youth are not interested in agriculture, leading to two concerns: first, that this is exacerbating the youth unemployment crisis, and second, that the already low levels of agricultural activity in the former homelands/reserves are likely to drop further, imperiling any hope for rural development in the future. This article explores the ‘youth in agriculture’ problem from various angles. First, it surveys the various explanations prevalent in the policy community regarding the ‘youth in agriculture’ problem. Second, it gathers together the sparse research evidence regarding the participation/nonparticipation of the youth in agriculture. Third, it reflects on the intersection between the ‘youth in agriculture’ problem and the challenges of promoting livestock production in the communal rangelands of the former homelands/reserves. The article tentatively argues that there is a strong parallel between the ‘youth in agriculture’ problem and the question of commercialisation of livestock production, in the sense that the pursuit of the latter is likely to comprise at least a partial solution to the former. By the same token, the article argues that both face a common challenge, namely the high concentration of cattle and goat ownership in the former homelands/reserves.