Climate Change Mitigation Goals Research Articles

Climate Change Law in an Era of Multi-Level Governance

AbstractAs international negotiations struggle to deliver timely, binding commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to safe levels, the environmental legal community has begun to contemplate the scope for climate governance ‘beyond’ the international climate change regime. Many see merit in a more decentralized, disaggregated approach, operating across multiple governance levels. This article examines the development of climate change law in an era of multi-level governance. It analyzes several case studies of current manifestations of multi-level governance in climate change law, including the fragmented global emissions trading system, developing arrangements governing forests and land-based sinks, the growth of climate litigation establishing transnational liability principles, efforts to ensure adaptation to unavoidable climate change, and the emergence in federal systems of a decentralized approach to climate change regulation. The article concludes by considering whether the emerging multi-level system of climate governance is adequate to meet broader international goals of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

Integrating ecosystem-service tradeoffs into land-use decisions

Recent high-profile efforts have called for integrating ecosystem-service values into important societal decisions, but there are few demonstrations of this approach in practice. We quantified ecosystem-service values to help the largest private landowner in Hawaii, Kamehameha Schools, design a land-use development plan that balances multiple private and public values on its North Shore land holdings (Island of O'ahu) of ∼10,600 ha. We used the InVEST software tool to evaluate the environmental and financial implications of seven planning scenarios encompassing contrasting land-use combinations including biofuel feedstocks, food crops, forestry, livestock, and residential development. All scenarios had positive financial return relative to the status quo of negative return. However, tradeoffs existed between carbon storage and water quality as well as between environmental improvement and financial return. Based on this analysis and community input, Kamehameha Schools is implementing a plan to support diversified agriculture and forestry. This plan generates a positive financial return ($10.9 million) and improved carbon storage (0.5% increase relative to status quo) with negative relative effects on water quality (15.4% increase in potential nitrogen export relative to status quo). The effects on water quality could be mitigated partially (reduced to a 4.9% increase in potential nitrogen export) by establishing vegetation buffers on agricultural fields. This plan contributes to policy goals for climate change mitigation, food security, and diversifying rural economic opportunities. More broadly, our approach illustrates how information can help guide local land-use decisions that involve tradeoffs between private and public interests.

How a socio-ecological metabolism approach can help to advance our understanding of changes in land-use intensity

How a socio-ecological metabolism approach can help to advance our understanding of changes in land-use intensity

Do recipient country characteristics affect international spillovers of CO2-efficiency via trade and foreign direct investment?

Although there is evidence that CO2-efficiency enhancing innovations in one country diffuse into other countries to contribute to the goals of climate change mitigation, very little is known about the conditions under which such international spillovers are most likely to take place. Our contribution in the present article seeks to address this gap by examining whether the strength of cross-border CO2-efficiency spatial dependence working through import ties and inward foreign direct investment (FDI) stocks is greater in (a) countries with lower existing levels of domestic CO2-efficiency and (b) countries with greater social capabilities in terms of a better educated workforce and higher institutional quality. We find that less CO2-efficient countries and countries with higher institutional quality experience stronger FDI-weighted CO2-efficiency spillovers, whereas a higher level of human capital increases receptivity to import-weighted international spillovers.

Do Recipient Country Characteristics Affect International Spillovers of CO2-Efficiency via Trade and Foreign Direct Investment?

Although there is evidence that CO¬2-efficiency enhancing innovations in one country diffuse into other countries to contribute to the goals of climate change mitigation, very little is known about the conditions under which such international spillovers are most likely to take place. Our contribution in the present article seeks to address this gap by examining whether the strength of cross-border CO2-efficiency spatial dependence working through import ties and inward foreign direct investment (FDI) stocks is greater in (a) countries with lower existing levels of domestic CO2-efficiency and (b) countries with greater social capabilities in terms of a better educated workforce and higher institutional quality. We find that less CO2-efficient countries and countries with higher institutional quality experience stronger FDI-weighted CO2-efficiency spillovers, whereas a higher level of human capital increases receptivity to import-weighted international spillovers.

An output-based intensity approach for crediting greenhouse gas mitigation in agriculture: explanation and policy implications

US legislators have recently proposed output-based emissions intensity metrics as an approach to credit greenhouse gas (GHG) offsets from agriculture and other uncapped sectors. This article explains the features and rationale of the output-based offset (OBO) approach, outlines a candidate accounting methodology, discusses the potential advantages and limitations of such an approach relative to the area-based offset (ABO) approach that is standard practice in some settings, and introduces possible policy implications. By incentivizing improvements in agricultural efficiency, the OBO approach strives to achieve the dual goals of food security and climate change mitigation. It expands the toolkit for achieving reductions in agricultural emissions, rewards technological advancement in both emission reductions and yields, and offers promise for addressing the problem of accounting for leakage. But because it is based on improvements in GHG efficiency in agriculture rather than on absolute reductions, emission...

Harnessing community energy: the keys to climate mitigation policy adoption in US municipalities

Many US municipalities are engaged in climate change mitigation planning or efforts to reduce their communities' greenhouse gas emissions. However, most have adopted very few policies to implement their climate change mitigation goals, and many others are not pursuing climate change mitigation at all. This study examines municipalities' approaches to energy and climate issues and identifies the “keys to success” that influence the extent to which they adopt climate change mitigation policies. Prior researchers have characterised climate change mitigation efforts as an example of multi-level governance, in which policies are formulated through a variety of networks and interactions between government actors and civil society. I find that municipalities that engage community interests and coordinate with neighbouring jurisdictions in their energy and climate planning processes are far more likely to adopt meaningful policies and conclude that such multi-level governance approaches are actually critical to the success of climate change mitigation planning.

Affordable passive solar design in a temperate climate: An experiment in residential building orientation

Improved energy efficiency in new residential buildings is typically being sought across the developed world through changing requirements in building and/or planning regulations. Stringency is set to further increase significantly in attempts to meet climate change mitigation goals. However, new regulation is usually met with reticence from sectors of the building industry, one reason being the additional costs implied in meeting higher performance standards for more energy efficient buildings. One low cost option, investigated in this paper, is to orient buildings in order to maximise their passive solar benefits. Using a range of 81 different detached dwelling designs, a modelling experiment was conducted in order to assess the implications of orientation on modelled thermal energy efficiency. Design adaptability to orientation change was modelled across two scenarios; current building energy efficiency standards and pending improved energy efficiency standards. The effect of size and overall energy efficiency rating was included in consideration of variance across orientations. Results show that higher standards are easier to apply to smaller dwellings, and costs are lower. Also, higher performing designs are more flexible across different orientations, producing lower standard deviations of mean ratings. The findings indicate that passive solar design is a concept that can readily be incorporated into house plans at the design stage. Recommendations for further empirical research are also made.

Opinion: An energy policy approach to climate change

We briefly consider the trend towards relying on the tools, systems and resources of national energy policy to meet international climate change mitigation goals. Within this paradigm, the myriad energy-related aspects of climate change policy should be explicitly addressed as a sub-set of energy policy rather than the reverse, with the positive goal of building a low-carbon economy rather than the negative task of reducing emissions. While international signals on global targets for climate change mitigation are valuable, they will only be realised if “grounded” into specific policy sectors that address core objectives of society (like security of energy service delivery). Various facets of energy policy from the geo-politics of the global trade in fossil fuels, to development of renewable energy technologies, to national power system planning and operation lend themselves to this approach. It remains the case that modifying the goals of energy policy to encompass delivery of climate goals will require a change in focus of energy decision-makers and institutions.

Considering WTO law in the design of climate change regimes beyond Kyoto

This article describes the most important provisions of World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements that should be considered in designing laws and regulations under likely post-Kyoto climate change mitigation regimes. The Kyoto Protocol and the expected post-Kyoto international climate agreement depend on national measures to implement market-based mitigation measures. This market strategy promotes international exchanges of goods, investments, and services such as cross-border trading of credits for emissions reductions and transnational financing for projects that avoid emissions through the Clean Development Mechanism. Moreover, the United States and other countries, concerned over "leakage" of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through relocation of industry to other countries coupled with political worry over manufacturing competitiveness, have proposed national climate legislation containing border adjustments on imported goods or implicit subsidies for national producers, raising additional WTO considerations. The article assesses the likely effectiveness of such trade-related measures in achieving climate change mitigation goals and the potential trade policy infringements and trade distortions that they might bring about. Alternative strategies for achieving GHG mitigation goals in closer conformity with WTO law and policy will be suggested.

Low-stabilisation scenarios and technologies for carbon capture and sequestration

Abstract Endogenous technology scenarios for meeting low stabilization CO 2 targets are derived in this study and assessed regarding emission reductions and mitigation costs. The aim is to indentify the most important technology options for achieving low stabilization targets. The significance of an option is indicated by its achieved emission reduction and the mitigation cost increase, if this option were not available. Quantitative results are computed using a global multi-regional hard-linked hybrid model that integrates the economy, the energy sector and the climate system. The model endogenously determines the optimal deployment of technologies subject to a constraint on climate change. The alternative options in the energy sector comprise the most important mitigation technologies: renewables, biomass, nuclear, carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), and biomass with CCS as well as energy efficiency improvements. The results indicate that the availability of CCS technologies and espec. biomass with CCS is highly desirable for achieving low stabilization goals at low costs. The option of nuclear energy is different: although it could play an important role in the primary energy mix, mitigation costs would only mildly increase, if it could not be expanded. Therefore, in order to promote prudent climate change mitigation goals, support of CCS technologies reduces the costs and–thus–is desirable from a social point of view.

THEECONOMICS OF“WHEN” FLEXIBILITY IN THEDESIGN OFGREENHOUSEGASABATEMENTPOLICIES

▪ Abstract This paper focuses on the desirability, from an economic perspective, of setting fixed and relatively short-term targets and timetables, such as those contained in the Kyoto Protocol, as a means of achieving longer-term climate change mitigation goals. The paper argues that whatever long-term policy goals are adopted, greater flexibility lowers implementation costs. Lower implementation costs, in turn, increases the likelihood that the policies will actually be followed and the goals achieved. Importantly, the Kyoto Protocol incorporates key elements of both “what” and “where” flexibility. That is, the “Kyoto basket” includes all six of the major greenhouse gases plus sinks, and the Protocol incorporates several mechanisms that allow emission reductions to take place at the least-cost geographic location, regardless of nation-state boundaries. The Protocol also provides substantial “how” flexibility in the sense that countries can use a variety of means to achieve domestic policy goals. However, the Protocol does not allow emission reductions to take place at a point in time when they can be achieved at lowest cost as long as they are consistent with the long-term environmental goals (“when” flexibility). Additionally, it does not allow the use of efficient price-based policy instruments to define targets and, thereby, balance environmental goals and compliance costs (which could be thought of as a broader version of “when” flexibility). Instead, the Protocol relies exclusively on strict, short term quantity targets. The relative inflexibility of the Protocol with respect to the timing of reductions and definitions of the targets may derive, in part, from a misplaced analogy between the global warming issue and the highly successful effort to phase out CFCs under the Montreal Protocol. The lack of when flexibility may be a key barrier to achieving the broader goals of the Kyoto Protocol, particularly if where flexibility is constrained in the implementation process.

The changing world of climate change: Oregon leads the States

Following on the heels of recent national and international developments in climate change policy, Oregon's ‘best-of-batch’ processing has validated the use of CO 2 offsets as a cost-effective means of advancing climate change mitigation goals. The proceeding was a first in several respects and represents a record commitment of funds to CO 2 mitigation by a private entity.

Potential of the porcine zona pellucida (PZP) being an immunocontraceptive agent for elephants

There is growing interest in aligning the wildlife conservation and restoration agenda with climate change mitigation goals. However, the presence of large herbivores tends to reduce aboveground biomass in some open-canopy ecosystems, leading to the possibility that large herbivore restoration may negatively influence ecosystem carbon storage. Belowground carbon storage is often ignored in these systems, despite the wide recognition of soils as the largest actively-cycling terrestrial carbon pool. Here, we suggest a shift away from a main focus on vegetation carbon stocks, towards inclusion of whole ecosystem carbon persistence, in future assessments of large herbivore effects on long-term carbon storage. Failure to do so may lead to counterproductive biodiversity and climate impacts of land management actions.

Designing new buildings of optimum shape and orientation

Improved energy efficiency in new residential buildings is typically being sought across the developed world through changing requirements in building and/or planning regulations. Stringency is set to further increase significantly in attempts to meet climate change mitigation goals. However, new regulation is usually met with reticence from sectors of the building industry, one reason being the additional costs implied in meeting higher performance standards for more energy efficient buildings. One low cost option, investigated in this paper, is to orient buildings in order to maximise their passive solar benefits. Using a range of 81 different detached dwelling designs, a modelling experiment was conducted in order to assess the implications of orientation on modelled thermal energy efficiency. Design adaptability to orientation change was modelled across two scenarios; current building energy efficiency standards and pending improved energy efficiency standards. The effect of size and overall energy efficiency rating was included in consideration of variance across orientations. Results show that higher standards are easier to apply to smaller dwellings, and costs are lower. Also, higher performing designs are more flexible across different orientations, producing lower standard deviations of mean ratings. The findings indicate that passive solar design is a concept that can readily be incorporated into house plans at the design stage. Recommendations for further empirical research are also made.