Glycemic Carbohydrate Research Articles

Polydextrose as a Functional Ingredient and its Food Applications: A Review

Polydextrose (PD) is a low calorie, sugar free, low glycemic speciality carbohydrate that has a variety of functional properties including high water solubility, high glass transition temperature, prebiotic properties, good stability at elevated temperature and over a broad range of pH and is widely recognized as soluble dietary fibre. These functional benefits have led to considerable interest from the food industry leading to the use of these ingredients in the development of new healthy products. It is widely used in applications such as baked goods, ice cream, beverages, confectionery, chocolate, yoghurt, and salad dressings, among many others. There is no maximum established limit for PD. Good manufacturing practices (GMP) limit the quantity to the amount necessary to accomplish the intended purpose in the food. This paper describes the production process, chemistry, some of the functional properties, food applications, safety and tolerance, and regulatory and labeling information of PD.

The impact of different glycaemic index carbohydrate staple foods on south asian diabetic and cardiovascular indices of health: A RCT

Objective Populations originating from the Indian subcontinent (South Asian) show a particular propensity to develop type 2 diabetes and its associated complications. We aimed to establish the nutritional content and glycaemic index (GI) of carbohydrate staples from a traditional South Asian diet and test their impact on diabetic and cardiovascular indices of health.

Enzymatic synthesis of 2-deoxyglucose-containing maltooligosaccharides for tracing the location of glucose absorption from starch digestion

The ileal brake mechanism which induces a potentially beneficial slower gastric emptying rate and increased satiety is triggered by macronutrients including glucose from glycemic carbohydrates. For optimization of this diet-induced health benefit, there is the need for a way to determine the location of glucose deposition in the small intestine. Labeled 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) can be used to trace the location of glucose absorption due to its accumulative property in the small intestine enterocytes. However, because pure glucose, or 2-DG, is directly absorbed in the proximal small intestine, we designed 2-DG containing maltooligosaccharides (2-DG-MOs) that can be used with a mild α-glucosidase inhibitor to attain an analytical method for determining location-specific delivery of glucose and its physiological effect.

Dietary phenolic compounds selectively inhibit the individual subunits of maltase-glucoamylase and sucrase-isomaltase with the potential of modulating glucose release.

In this study, it was hypothesized that dietary phenolic compounds selectively inhibit the individual C- and N-terminal (Ct, Nt) subunits of the two small intestinal α-glucosidases, maltase-glucoamylase (MGAM) and sucrase-isomaltase (SI), for a modulated glycemic carbohydrate digestion. The inhibition by chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, gallic acid, (+)-catechin, and (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) on individual recombinant human Nt-MGAM and Nt-SI and on mouse Ct-MGAM and Ct-SI was assayed using maltose as the substrate. Inhibition constants, inhibition mechanisms, and IC50 values for each combination of phenolic compound and enzymatic subunit were determined. EGCG and chlorogenic acid were found to be more potent inhibitors for selectively inhibiting the two subunits with highest activity, Ct-MGAM and Ct-SI. All compounds displayed noncompetitive type inhibition. Inhibition of fast-digesting Ct-MGAM and Ct-SI by EGCG and chlorogenic acid could lead to a slow, but complete, digestion of starch for improved glycemic response of starchy foods with potential health benefit.

Contents of total fat, fatty acids, starch, sugars and dietary fibre in Swedish market basket diets.

The typical dietary supply of total fat, fatty acids, starch, sugars, polyols and dietary fibre in Sweden was assessed from analyses of market baskets (MB) purchased in 2005 and 2010. MB were based on food balance sheets, with each basket comprising about 130 foods, which represented more than 90% of annual dietary supply. Foods were divided into ten to twelve categories. In 2010, total fat contributed 34% of energy (E%), SFA 14.3 E%, MUFA 12.8 E%, PUFA 4.6 E%, n-6 fatty acids 3.6 E%, n-3 fatty acids 1.0 E% and trans-fatty acids (TFA) 0.5 E%. Glycaemic carbohydrates contributed 47 E%, monosaccharides 9 E%, sucrose 11 E%, disaccharides 15 E% and total sugars 24 E%. Added sugars contributed about 15 E%. Dietary fibre content was about 1.7 g/MJ in the 2010 MB. Compared with the 2005 MB, the dietary supply of TFA and dietary fibre was lower, otherwise differences were small. The present MB survey shows that the content of SFA and added sugars was higher than the current Nordic Nutrition Recommendations, while the content of PUFA and especially dietary fibre was lower. TFA levels decreased and dietary supply was well below the recommendations of the WHO. These results emphasise a focus on quality and food sources of fat and carbohydrates, limiting foods rich in SFA and added sugars and replacing them with foods rich in dietary fibre and cis-unsaturated fatty acids.

Moving to a Broader Concept of Quality of Glycemic Carbohydrates

Dietary carbohydrates are important in providing energy to humans, but carbohydrates are increasingly thought of as “bad” foods associated with obesity, diabetics and associated diseases. The objective of this report is in regard to how moderating glucose delivery profiles might be done to affect physiologic endpoints that may address these public health problems. Several projects were conducted related to this new concept. Small intestinal mucosal α-glucosidases, as the glucose generation point in digestion, were applied to hydrolyze starches and α-amylase hydrolysates in vitro to elucidate slower digesting components of starch. Alginate-based microsphere embedded with starch were developed to deposit glucose at different rates in the small intestine and glucosidase activity, feeding behavior, hypothalamic neuropeptides, and gastric emptying were examined in rat and mouse models. We also conducted studies to examine how distally release glucose affects gastric empty rate in humans. Overall, our results show that relatively small amount of glucose from glycemic carbohydrates in the diet delivered distally creates certain same and second meal physiological effects including modulation of gastric emptying rate of nutrients for digestion and absorption into the body, and reduced food intake accompanied by a lowering of the orexigenic neuropeptides of the hypothalamus. Dietary glucose, in this context, becomes a bioactive molecule as it triggers physiological responses, in addition to its major energy providing role. Our goal in future research is to develop food technologies, as well as to identify practical approaches, using whole grain or whole foods, or a mixture of food ingredient and whole food, for such carbohydrate quality health-related effects.

Glycaemic load versus carbohydrate counting for insulin bolus calculation in patients with type 1 diabetes on insulin pump.

To evaluate feasibility and effectiveness on short-term blood glucose control of using glycaemic load counting (GLC) versus carbohydrate counting (CC) for prandial insulin dosing in patients with type 1 diabetes (T1D). Nine T1D patients on insulin pump, aged 26-58 years, HbA1c 7.7 ± 0.8 % (61 ± 8.7 mmol/mol), participated in this real-life setting study. By a crossover design, patients were randomised to calculate their pre-meal insulin dose based on the insulin/glycaemic load ratio (GLC period) or the insulin/carbohydrate ratio (CC period) for 1 week, shifting to the alternate method for the next week, when participants duplicated their first week food plan. Over either week, a blind subcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring was performed, and a 7-day food record was filled in. Total daily insulin doses (45 ± 10 vs. 44 ± 9 I.U.; M ± SD, p = 0.386) and basal infusion (26 ± 7 vs. 26 ± 8 I.U., p = 0.516) were not different during GLC and CC periods, respectively. However, the range of insulin doses (difference between highest and lowest insulin dose) was wider during GLC, with statistical significance at dinner (8.4 ± 6.2 vs. 6.0 ± 3.9 I.U., p = 0.041). Blood glucose iAUC after lunch was lower, albeit not significantly, during GLC than CC period (0.6 ± 8.6 vs. 3.4 ± 8.2 mmol/l∙3 h, p = 0.059). Postprandial glucose variability, evaluated as the maximal amplitude after meal (highest minus lowest glucose value), was significantly lower during GLC than CC period at lunch (4.22 ± 0.28 vs. 5.47 ± 0.39 mmol/l, p = 0.002) and dinner (3.89 ± 0.33 vs. 4.89 ± 0.33, p = 0.026). Calculating prandial insulin bolus based on glycaemic load counting is feasible in a real-life setting and may improve postprandial glucose control in people with T1D.

Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to glycaemic carbohydrates and contribution to normal cognitive function pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Following an application from Dextro Energy GmbH & Co. KG, submitted for the authorisation of a health claim pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 via the Competent Authority of Germany, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the scientific substantiation of a health claim related to glycaemic carbohydrates and contribution to normal cognitive function. The scope of the application was proposed to fall under a health claim based on newly developed scientific evidence. The Panel considers that the food constituent, glycaemic carbohydrates, which is the subject of the health claim, is sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed effect. Contribution to normal cognitive function is a beneficial physiological effect. Glycaemic carbohydrates contribute to the maintenance of normal brain functions, including cognition. The Panel concludes that a cause and effect relationship has been established between the consumption of glycaemic carbohydrates and contribution to normal cognitive function. A daily intake of 130 g of glycaemic carbohydrates has been estimated to cover the glucose requirement of the brain. Such amounts can be consumed as part of a balanced diet. The target population is the general population.

Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to glycaemic carbohydrates and maintenance of normal brain function pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Following applications from Dextro Energy GmbH & Co. KG, submitted for the authorisation of health claims pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 via the Competent Authority of Germany, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the scientific substantiation of health claims related to glycaemic carbohydrates and maintenance of normal brain function. The scope of the applications was proposed to fall under health claims based on newly developed scientific evidence. The Panel considers that the food constituent, glycaemic carbohydrates, which is the subject of the health claims, is sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed effect. Maintenance of normal brain function is a beneficial physiological effect. A claim on glycaemic carbohydrates and maintenance of normal brain function has already been assessed by the Panel with a favourable outcome.

Low Fat vs. Low Carbohydrate Diet Strategies for Weight Reduction: A Meta-Analysis

Background: Overweight and obesity are a global crisis. Lifestyle interventions, including weight loss diets, are the first line treatment for this problem. In addition to energy restriction, some diets emphasize manipulation of macronutrient composition to promote weight loss. Such diets may be broadly classified into low fat and low carbohydrate diets. Objective: This meta-analysis was designed to compare low fat to low carbohydrate diets in terms of weight loss. Methods: Studies were included in the present meta-analysis if they were 1) well-designed randomized clinical trials comparing low fat to low carbohydrate diets; 2) included healthy overweight and obese adults; 3) had a followup of 12 weeks or longer; 4) measured weight loss as the a stated endpoint; 5) were published in 2010 or later. Results: Nine studies meeting all inclusion criteria were identified. Together, these studies included 1161 subjects, 592 of whom were exposed to low carbohydrate diets and 569 to low fat diets. Two of the included studies provided meals to participants. One study included two low-carbohydrate arms, one with high glycemic index and one with low glycemic index carbohydrates. A high degree of heterogeneity between studies was identified, I2=94.8, Q=154.8, p<0.001. In a random effects model, no significant advantage to either diet strategy could be identified – standardized difference in means 0.42, 95% CI: 0.13-0.98, p=0.14. None of the metabolic endpoints examined, including lipid profile (triglycerides, total, low or high density lipoprotein cholesterol), glucose of blood pressure differed by diet exposure. Conclusion: Both types of macronutrient-centered weight loss diets produced weight loss. Manipulation of macronutrient composition of weight loss diets does not appear to be associated with significantly different weight loss or metabolic outcomes.

Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of a health claim related to Nutriose®06 and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Following an application from Roquette Italia S.P.A., submitted for authorisation of a health claim pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 via the Competent Authority of Italy, the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) was asked to deliver an opinion on the scientific substantiation of a health claim related to Nutriose®06 and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses. Non-digestible carbohydrates, including resistant dextrin in Nutriose®06, are resistant to hydrolysis and absorption in the small intestine and therefore do not contribute to post-prandial glycaemia. This opinion applies to non-digestible carbohydrates (e.g. non-starch polysaccharides, resistant oligosaccharides and resistant starch), which should replace glycaemic carbohydrates in foods or beverages in order to obtain the claimed effect. The Panel considers that the food constituent, non-digestible carbohydrates, which is the subject of the health claim, and the food constituent (i.e. glycaemic carbohydrates) that non-digestible carbohydrates should replace in foods or beverages are both sufficiently characterised in relation to the claimed effect. The Panel considers that a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses might be a beneficial physiological effect. A claim on non-digestible carbohydrates and reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses has already been assessed by the Panel with a favourable outcome. The previous evaluation, including the proposed wording and the conditions of use, also applies to this application. The Panel concludes that a cause and effect relationship has been established between the consumption of foods/beverages containing non-digestible carbohydrates and a reduction of post-prandial glycaemic responses as compared with foods/beverages containing glycaemic carbohydrates.

Versatility of ‘hemorheologic fitness’ according to exercise intensity: emphasis on the “healthy primitive lifestyle”

We recently proposed a unifying hypothesis to reconcile unexpected findings in exercise hemorheology and the classical concepts of “hemorheologic fitness” and the “triphasic effects of exercise”, based on the “healthy primitive lifestyle” paradigm. This paradigm assumes that evolution has selected genetic polymorphisms leading to insulin resistance as an adaptative strategy to cope with continuous low intensity physical activity and a special alimentation moderately high in protein, rich in low glycemic index carbohydrates, and poor in saturated fat. According to this protocol the true physiological picture would be that of an individual whose exercise and nutritional habits are close from this lifestyle, both sedentary subjects and trained athletes representing situations on the edge of this model. Unfortunately samples of people truly adhering to this ancestral lifestyle are hard to obtain. In order to address this picture we tried to compare databases obtained with our preceding published studies. As a model of the “healthy primitive lifestyle” we selected patients trained at low intensity (LI) and given an advice of protein intake around 1.2 g/kg/day. Results show a continuum for plasma viscosity which seems to be lower in athletes than LI-trained and even more sedentaries. When sedentary subjects become obese the most obvious characteristic is an increase in red blood cell (RBC) aggregation correlated to the size of fat stores. It is clear that 3 months of LI are not a perfect model of “healthy primitive lifestyle”, but these data suggest that the most important effect of LI regular exercise is to decrease plasma viscosity and that sedentarity increases RBC aggregation mostly when it results in increased fat storage.

Glycemic load is positively associated with diastolic blood pressure levels during pregnancy: preliminary results from a prospective cohort study in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (810.11)

Objective: To evaluate the association between dietary GL and systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) during healthy pregnancy. Methods: Prospective cohort of 155 healthy pregnant women followed at 6‐13th, 20‐26th and 30‐36th gestational weeks. Dietary GL was calculated from glycemic index, carbohydrate content, and frequency intake of selected foods, obtained from food frequency questionnaire applied in the 3rd trimester having the whole pregnancy as the time frame. SBP and DBP throughout pregnancy were the outcomes. Statistical analysis comprised multiple longitudinal linear mixed‐effect models adjusted for obstetric, socioeconomic, dietetic, and biomarker variables. Results: Mean SBP was 109.7, 107.9, and 111.3 (mmHg) and DBP was 66.6, 64.3, and 67.2 (mmHg) for the 1st, 2sd and 3rd trimester, respectively, and didn’t varied according to tertile of GL in the 3rd trimester (p&gt;0.05). GL was not associated with SBP in the multiple model (β=0.237; 95%CI=‐0.16‐0.64; p=0.245). GL was positively associated with DBP (β=0.387; 95%CI=0.08‐0.69; p=0.015) after adjusting for confounders such as per‐capita family income, skin color, BMI, and calories. Conclusion: Dietary GL was positively associated with DBP changes during pregnancy.Grant Funding Source: Supported by: FAPERJ, CNPq, CAPES

Eating behavior and its association with measures of adiposity and metabolic risk factors in women ‐ Brazilian Metabolic Syndrome Study (BRAMS) (1034.4)

Introduction:Obesity and metabolic syndrome(MS)justified:nutritional imbala nce and lifestyle.Postprandial dysmetabo lism characterized extended fasting followed meals of high energy density associated with cardiometabolic risk factors(RF)Objectives:Investigate existing associations:eating behavior,RF to MS Methods:Cross sectional study,379 women,17‐75 years old,assessed waist cir cumference(WC),body mass index(BMI)serum liver enzymes,blood glucose,fasting insulin,total,cholesterol,fractions,tri glycerides,adiponectin.To assessment nu tritional composition, behavioral diete tic pattern it was used habitual diete tic recall(DietPro5).Fasting hours prior breakfast, dinner were separately catego rized into 3groups D110,5,J14,5.Statisti cal Pearson correlational test,partial correlation adjustment:BMI,age,total energetic intake,Oneway ANOVA test.Consi dered p&lt;0,05Results positive correlation observed between fasting preceding dinner,glycemic carbohydrate meal holds (r=0,11,p=0,04),CA(r=0,15,p= 0,01), LDLc (r=0,11,p=0,04),AST(r=0,24,p&lt;0,001),GPT(r=0,20,p&lt;0,001),GGT(r=0.25,p=0,003),insulin(r=0,17,p=0,01),adiponectin (r=‐0,15 ,p=0,04).Correlations remained signifi cant:AST and GGT after adjustment age, BMI,energy consumption:(r=0,19,p=0,03),(r=0,25,p=0,01).Fasting breakfast correlated CA(r=0,16,p=0,01),adiponectin (r=‐0,19,p=0,01),adiponectin remained significant after adjustment(r=‐0,23,p= 0,02).Groups of fasting preceding break fast was no difference between mean AST (p=0,01),AST(p=0,03),GGT(p=0,02).Among groups of fasting preceding the dinner difference was found between mean CA(p= 0,01),LDL‐c(p=0,04),adiponectin(p=0,03) Discussion:overfeeding,oxidative stress ,proportional number of hours before are meals,involved with high requirement liver and pancreas.Conclusion:Behavioral dietary pattern was associated with RF and MS.

Gluten‐free spaghetti made with chickpea, unripe plantain and maize flours: functional and chemical properties and starch digestibility

SummaryThe development of gluten‐free spaghetti with a low amount of glycaemic carbohydrate was investigated. The goal of this study was to determine the chemical composition, cooking quality and starch digestibility of gluten‐free spaghetti elaborated with mixtures of chickpea, unripe plantain and maize flours. The gluten‐free spaghetti presented a higher protein, fat and ash content than the control semolina spaghetti. The solid loss among all the gluten‐free spaghetti was in the range of 10.04–10.91% and not significantly different from each other. These values were almost at the limit of acceptability to be considered as good cooking quality. Total starch in the gluten‐free spaghetti was lower than the control spaghetti. The lower available starch (AS) and higher resistant starch contents in the gluten‐free spaghetti were associated with their lower rate of hydrolysis and predicted glycaemic index. There is a potential for developing gluten‐free spaghetti with reduced amount of glycaemic carbohydrates from unconventional food ingredients such as chickpea, unripe plantain and maize flours.

Slow digestion property of microencapsulated normal corn starch

Starch is the main glycemic dietary carbohydrate, and its nutritional quality is associated with the amount of slowly digestible starch (SDS) that is beneficial to glycemic control. In the current study, a microencapsulation of normal corn starch by zein protein and its slow digestion property were investigated. A significant increase of SDS and RS was shown for starch capsules (weight ratio of zein to starch: 1:6) containing plasticizers of glycerol and oleic acid after high temperature (≥70 °C) treatment. Further studies showed a substantially decreased viscosity and the formation of an amylose–lipid complex after starch gelatinization. Thus, the hydrophobic physical barrier of the zein matrix and the amylose–lipid complex might together limit the water accessibility and starch swelling leading to a dense packing of starch materials with a high amount of SDS. The acceptable sensory property makes it an ideal ingredient for specialty food preparation and glycemic control.

Response to comments on the Scientific Opinion of the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) on the scientific substantiation of health claims related to glycaemic carbohydrates and recovery of normal muscle function (contraction) after strenuous exercise pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Response to comments on the Scientific Opinion of the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies (NDA) on the scientific substantiation of health claims related to glycaemic carbohydrates and recovery of normal muscle function (contraction) after strenuous exercise pursuant to Article 13(5) of Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006

Dietary strategies for the management of cardiovascular risk: role of dietary carbohydrates

Carbohydrate-rich foods are an essential component of the diet, providing the glucose that is continuously required by the nervous system and some other cells and tissues in the body for normal function. There is some concern that too much carbohydrate or certain types of carbohydrate such as fructose or the high glycaemic index carbohydrate foods that produce large, rapid increases in blood glucose may be detrimental to health. This review considers these issues and also summarises the public health advice currently available in Europe and the USA concerning dietary carbohydrates. The UK Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition is currently reviewing carbohydrates and health, and the subsequent report should help clarify some of the concerns regarding carbohydrates and health.

Effects of ingesting low glycemic index carbohydrate food for the sahur meal on subjective, metabolic and physiological responses, and endurance performance in Ramadan fasted men

Purpose: To investigate the effect of low glycemic index (LGI) carbohydrate meal on subjective, metabolic and physiological responses, and endurance performance in the Ramadan fasted state. Methods: During Ramadan, 12 Muslim men, in a randomized and crossover design, ingested for the sahur meal (i.e. last meal before commencement of the day’s fast), either LGI (glycemic index = 37) or mixed (CON; ∼57) meal of equivalent macro-nutrient. At ∼12 h post-prandial, subjects completed a 60 min continuous run. Results: There were no significant differences between the two meals for ratings in perceived satiety, fullness, appetite and mood states. During steady-state exercise, there were no significant differences in metabolic and physiological measures. In the time-trial, distance ran was significantly lower in LGI versus CON meal trial, but with a corresponding lower perceived exertion in the LGI trial. Conclusion: Compared to CON, ingesting LGI as the sahur meal did not provide any metabolic, physiological or performance benefits during endurance run performed 12 h post-prandial in Ramadan fasted state.

Mucosal C‐terminal maltase‐glucoamylase hydrolyzes large size starch digestion products that may contribute to rapid postprandial glucose generation

The four mucosal α-glucosidases, which differ in their digestive roles, generate glucose from glycemic carbohydrates and accordingly can be viewed as a control point for rate of glucose delivery to the body. In this study, individual recombinant enzymes were used to understand how α-glucan oligomers are digested by each enzyme, and how intermediate α-amylolyzed starches are hydrolyzed, to elucidate a strategy for moderating the glycemic spike of rapidly digestible starchy foods. The C-terminal maltase-glucoamylase (ctMGAM, commonly termed "glucoamylase") was able to rapidly hydrolyze longer maltooligosaccharides, such as maltotetraose and maltopentaose, to glucose. Moreover, it was found to convert larger size maltodextrins, as would be produced early in α-amylase digestion of starch, efficiently to glucose. It is postulated that ctMGAM has the additional capacity to hydrolyze large α-amylase products that are produced immediately on starch digestion in the duodenum and contribute to the rapid generation of glucose from starch-based meals. The findings suggest that partial inhibition of ctMGAM, such as by natural inhibitors found in foods, might be used to moderate the early stage of high glycemic response, as well as to extend digestion distally; thereby having relevance in regulating glucose delivery to the body.