Glutamate Transporter Activity Research Articles

Chronic pain and impaired glial glutamate transporter function in lupus-prone mice are ameliorated by blocking macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1 receptors.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a multi-organ disease of unknown etiology in which the normal immune responses are directed against the body's own healthy tissues. Patients with SLE often suffer from chronic pain. Currently, no animal studies have been reported about the mechanisms underlying pain in SLE. In this study, the development of chronic pain in MRL lupus-prone (MRL/lpr) mice, a well-established lupus mouse model, was characterized for the first time. We found that female MRL/lpr mice developed thermal hyperalgesia at the age of 13weeks, and mechanical allodynia at the age of 16weeks. MRL/lpr mice with chronic pain had activation of microglia and astrocytes, over-expression of macrophage colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), as well as suppression of glial glutamate transport function in the spinal cord. Intrathecal injection of either the CSF-1 blocker or IL-1 inhibitor attenuated thermal hyperalgesia in MRL/lpr mice. We provide evidence that the suppressed activity of glial glutamate transporters in the spinal dorsal horn in MRL/lpr mice is caused by activation of the CSF-1 and IL-1β signaling pathways. Our findings suggest that targeting the CSF-1 and IL-1β signaling pathways or the glial glutamate transporter in the spinal cord is an effective approach for the management of chronic pain caused by SLE.

Glutamate oxidation in astrocytes: Roles of glutamate dehydrogenase and aminotransferases.

The cellular distribution of transporters and enzymes related to glutamate metabolism led to the concept of the glutamate-glutamine cycle. Glutamate is released as a neurotransmitter and taken up primarily by astrocytes ensheathing the synapses. The glutamate carbon skeleton is transferred back to the presynaptic neurons as the nonexcitatory amino acid glutamine. The cycle was initially thought to function with a 1:1 ratio between glutamate released and glutamine taken up by neurons. However, studies of glutamate metabolism in astrocytes have shown that a considerable proportion of glutamate undergoes oxidative degradation; thus, quantitative formation of glutamine from the glutamate taken up is not possible. Oxidation of glutamate is initiated by transamination catalyzed by an aminotransferase, or oxidative deamination catalyzed by glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH). We discuss methods available to elucidate the enzymes that mediate this conversion. Methods include pharmacological tools such as the transaminase inhibitor aminooxyacetic acid, studies using GDH knockout mice, and siRNA-mediated knockdown of GDH in astrocytes. Studies in brain slices incubated with [15 N]glutamate demonstrated activity of GDH in astrocytes in situ. These results, in conjunction with reports in the literature, support the conclusion that GDH is active in astrocytes both in culture and in vivo and that this enzyme plays a significant role in glutamate oxidation. Oxidative metabolism of glutamate, primarily mediated by GDH, but also by transamination by aspartate aminotransferase, provides considerably more energy than is required to maintain the activity of the high-affinity glutamate transporters needed for efficient removal of glutamate from the synaptic cleft. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Comparison of several transport activities of lens epithelial cells from cataract and healthy dog

PurposeThe aim of this study is to compare the transport activities between normal and cataract lens epithelial cells.MethodsThe primary lens epithelial cells of healthy and cataract dog were transfected with the expression plasmid DNA of large T antigen from replication origin‐defective simian virus 40 (SV40), then cloned using a glass cylinder. The transport activities of glycine, cysteine, glutamate, arginine, leucine, carnitine, ascorbic acid and glutathione were investigated using two cell lines.ResultsThere was no significant difference in transport activity between the two cells lines except for glutamate. Glutamate transport activity was 20% lower in cells from cataract than healthy one.ConclusionsReduced glutamate transport activity may contribute to the pathogenesis of canine cataract.

Traumatic Brain Injury Induces Alterations in Cortical Glutamate Uptake without a Reduction in Glutamate Transporter-1 Protein Expression.

We hypothesize that the primary mechanism for removal of glutamate from the extracellular space is altered after traumatic brain injury (TBI). To evaluate this hypothesis, we initiated TBI in adult male rats using a 2.0 atm lateral fluid percussion injury (LFPI) model. In the ipsilateral cortex and hippocampus, we found no differences in expression of the primary glutamate transporter in the brain (GLT-1) 24 h after TBI. In contrast, we found a decrease in glutamate uptake in the cortex, but not the hippocampus, 24 h after injury. Because glutamate uptake is potently regulated by protein kinases, we assessed global serine-threonine protein kinase activity using a kinome array platform. Twenty-five kinome array peptide substrates were differentially phoshorylated between LFPI and controls in the cortex, whereas 19 peptide substrates were differentially phosphorylated in the hippocampus (fold change ≥ ± 1.15). We identified several kinases as likely to be involved in acute TBI, including protein kinase B (Akt) and protein kinase C (PKC), which are well-characterized modulators of GLT-1. Exploratory studies using an inhibitor of Akt suggest selective activation of kinases in LFPI versus controls. Ingenuity pathway analyses of implicated kinases from our network model found apoptosis and cell death pathways as top functions in acute LFPI. Taken together, our data suggest diminished activity of glutamate transporters in the prefrontal cortex, with no changes in protein expression of the primary glutamate transporter GLT-1, and global alterations in signaling networks that include serine-threonine kinases that are known modulators of glutamate transport activity.

Glutamate transporter activity promotes enhanced Na+ /K+ -ATPase-mediated extracellular K+ management during neuronal activity.

Management of glutamate and K+ in brain extracellular space is of critical importance to neuronal function. The astrocytic α2β2 Na+ /K+ -ATPase isoform combination is activated by the K+ transients occurring during neuronal activity. In the present study, we report that glutamate transporter-mediated astrocytic Na+ transients stimulate the Na+ /K+ -ATPase and thus the clearance of extracellular K+ . Specifically, the astrocytic α2β1 Na+ /K+ -ATPase subunit combination displays an apparent Na+ affinity primed to react to physiological changes in intracellular Na+ . Accordingly, we demonstrate a distinct physiological role in K+ management for each of the two astrocytic Na+ /K+ -ATPase β-subunits. Neuronal activity is associated with transient [K+ ]o increases. The excess K+ is cleared by surrounding astrocytes, partly by the Na+ /K+ -ATPase of which several subunit isoform combinations exist. The astrocytic Na+ /K+ -ATPase α2β2 isoform constellation responds directly to increased [K+ ]o but, in addition, Na+ /K+ -ATPase-mediated K+ clearance could be governed by astrocytic [Na+ ]i . During most neuronal activity, glutamate is released in the synaptic cleft and is re-absorbed by astrocytic Na+ -coupled glutamate transporters, thereby elevating [Na+ ]i . It thus remains unresolved whether the different Na+ /K+ -ATPase isoforms are controlled by [K+ ]o or [Na+ ]i during neuronal activity. Hippocampal slice recordings of stimulus-induced [K+ ]o transients with ion-sensitive microelectrodes revealed reduced Na+ /K+ -ATPase-mediated K+ management upon parallel inhibition of the glutamate transporter. The apparent intracellular Na+ affinity of isoform constellations involving the astrocytic β2 has remained elusive as a result of inherent expression of β1 in most cell systems, as well as technical challenges involved in measuring intracellular affinity in intact cells. We therefore expressed the different astrocytic isoform constellations in Xenopus oocytes and determined their apparent Na+ affinity in intact oocytes and isolated membranes. The Na+ /K+ -ATPase was not fully saturated at basal astrocytic [Na+ ]i , irrespective of isoform constellation, although the β1 subunit conferred lower apparent Na+ affinity to the α1 and α2 isoforms than the β2 isoform. In summary, enhanced astrocytic Na+ /K+ -ATPase-dependent K+ clearance was obtained with parallel glutamate transport activity. The astrocytic Na+ /K+ -ATPase isoform constellation α2β1 appeared to be specifically geared to respond to the [Na+ ]i transients associated with activity-induced glutamate transporter activity.

N-acetylcysteine modulates glutamatergic dysfunction and depressive behavior in Huntington’s disease

Glutamatergic dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive disorders and Huntington's disease (HD), in which depression is the most common psychiatric symptom. Synaptic glutamate homeostasis is regulated by cystine-dependent glutamate transporters, including GLT-1 and system xc- In HD, the enzyme regulating cysteine (and subsequently cystine) production, cystathionine-γ-lygase, has recently been shown to be lowered. The aim of the present study was to establish whether cysteine supplementation, using N-acetylcysteine (NAC) could ameliorate glutamate pathology through the cystine-dependent transporters, system xc- and GLT-1. We demonstrate that the R6/1 transgenic mouse model of HD has lower basal levels of cystine, and showed depressive-like behaviors in the forced-swim test. Administration of NAC reversed these behaviors. This effect was blocked by co-administration of the system xc- and GLT-1 inhibitors CPG and DHK, showing that glutamate transporter activity was required for the antidepressant effects of NAC. NAC was also able to specifically increase glutamate in HD mice, in a glutamate transporter-dependent manner. These in vivo changes reflect changes in glutamate transporter protein in HD mice and human HD post-mortem tissue. Furthermore, NAC was able to rescue changes in key glutamate receptor proteins related to excitotoxicity in HD, including NMDAR2B. Thus, we have shown that baseline reductions in cysteine underlie glutamatergic dysfunction and depressive-like behavior in HD and these changes can be rescued by treatment with NAC. These findings have implications for the development of new therapeutic approaches for depressive disorders.

Functional Indicators of Glutamate Transport in Single Striatal Astrocytes and the Influence of Kir4.1 in Normal and Huntington Mice.

This study evaluates single-cell indicators of glutamate transport in sulforhodamine 101-positive astrocytes of Q175 mice, a knock-in model of Huntington's disease (HD). Transport-related fluorescent ratio signals obtained with sodium-binding benzofuran isophtalate (SBFI) AM from unperturbed or voltage-clamped astrocytes and respective glutamate transporter currents (GTCs) were induced by photolytic or synaptic glutamate release and isolated pharmacologically. The HD-induced deficit ranged from -27% (GTC maximum at -100 mV in Ba(2+)) to -41% (sodium transients in astrocytes after loading SBFI-AM). Our specific aim was to clarify the mechanism(s) by which Kir4.1 channels can influence glutamate transport, as determined by either Na(+) imaging or transport-associated electrical signals. A decrease of Kir4.1 conductance was mimicked with Ba(2+) (200 μm), and an increase of Kir4.1 expression was obtained by intravenous administration of AAV9-gfaABC1D-Kir4.1-EGFP. The decrease of Kir4.1 conductance reduced the sodium transients but increased the amplitudes of somatic GTCs. Accordingly, after genetic upregulation of Kir4.1, somatic GTCs were found to be decreased. In individual cells, there was a negative correlation between Kir4.1 currents and GTCs. The relative effect of the Kir4.1 conductance was higher in the astrocyte periphery. These and other results suggest that the Kir4.1 conductance affects glutamate transporter activity in a dual manner: (1) by providing the driving force (voltage dependency of the transport itself) and (2) by limiting the lateral charge transfer (thereby reducing the interference with other electrogenic transporter functions). This leads to the testable prediction that restoring the high conductance state of passive astrocytes will not only normalize glutamate uptake but also restore other astrocytic transporter activities afflicted with HD. Insufficiency of astrocytic glutamate uptake is a major element in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. Considering the heterogeneity of astrocytes and their differential susceptibility to therapeutic interventions, it becomes necessary to evaluate the determinants of transport activity in individual astroglial cells. We have examined intracellular Na(+) transients and glutamate transporter currents as the most telling indicators of glutamate clearance after synaptic or photolytic release of glutamate in striatal slices. The results show that, in Huntington's disease, glutamate uptake activity critically depends on Kir4.1. These channels enable the high conductance state of the astrocytic plasma membrane, which ensures the driving force for glutamate transport and dumps the transport-associated depolarization along the astrocyte processes. This has significant implications for developing therapeutic targets.

Clinical aspects of urea cycle dysfunction and altered brain energy metabolism on modulation of glutamate receptors and transporters in acute and chronic hyperammonemia.

In living organisms, nitrogen arise primarily as ammonia (NH3) and ammonium (NH4(+)), which is a main component of the nucleic acid pool and proteins. Although nitrogen is essential for growth and maintenance in animals, but when the nitrogenous compounds exceeds the normal range which can quickly lead to toxicity and death. Urea cycle is the common pathway for the disposal of excess nitrogen through urea biosynthesis. Hyperammonemia is a consistent finding in many neurological disorders including congenital urea cycle disorders, reye's syndrome and acute liver failure leads to deleterious effects. Hyperammonemia and liver failure results in glutamatergic neurotransmission which contributes to the alteration in the function of the glutamate-nitric oxide-cGMP pathway, modulates the important cerebral process. Even though ammonia is essential for normal functioning of the central nervous system (CNS), in particular high concentrations of ammonia exposure to the brain leads to the alterations of glutamate transport by the transporters. Several glutamate transporters have been recognized in the central nervous system and each has a unique physiological property and distribution. The loss of glutamate transporter activity in brain during acute liver failure and hyperammonemia is allied with increased extracellular brain glutamate concentrations which may be conscientious for the cerebral edema and ultimately cell death.

Effects of ceftriaxone on ethanol, nicotine or sucrose intake by alcohol-preferring (P) rats and its association with GLT-1 expression

Increased glutamatergic neurotransmission appears to mediate the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse, including ethanol (EtOH). We have shown that administration of ceftriaxone (CEF), a β-lactam antibiotic, reduced EtOH intake and increased glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) expression in mesocorticolimbic regions of male and female alcohol-preferring (P) rats. In the present study, we tested whether CEF administration would reduce nicotine (NIC) and/or EtOH intake by adult female P rats. P rats were randomly assigned to 4 groups: (a) 5% sucrose (SUC) or 10% SUC [SUC], (b) 5% SUC+0.07mg/ml NIC and 10% SUC+0.14mg/ml NIC [NIC–SUC], 15% EtOH and 30% EtOH [EtOH] and (d) 15% EtOH+0.07mg/ml NIC and 30% EtOH+0.14mg/ml NIC [NIC–EtOH]. After achieving stable intakes (4weeks), the rats were administered 7 consecutive, daily i.p. injections of either saline or 200mg/kg CEF. The effects of CEF on intake were significant but differed across the reinforcers; such that ml/kg/day SUC was reduced by ∼30%, mg/kg/day NIC was reduced by ∼70% in the NIC–SUC group and ∼40% in the EtOH–NIC group, whereas g/kg/day EtOH was reduced by ∼40% in both the EtOH and EtOH–NIC group. The effects of CEF on GLT-1 expression were also studied. We found that CEF significantly increased GLT-1 expression in the prefrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens of the NIC and NIC–EtOH rats as compared to NIC and NIC–EtOH saline-treated rats. These findings provide further support for GLT-1-associated mechanisms in EtOH and/or NIC abuse. The present results along with previous reports of CEF’s efficacy in reducing cocaine self-administration in rats suggest that modulation of GLT-1 expression and/or activity is an important pharmacological target for treating polysubstance abuse and dependence.

Sonic hedgehog is a regulator of extracellular glutamate levels and epilepsy.

Sonic hedgehog (Shh), both as a mitogen and as a morphogen, plays an important role in cell proliferation and differentiation during early development. Here, we show that Shh inhibits glutamate transporter activities in neurons, rapidly enhances extracellular glutamate levels, and affects the development of epilepsy. Shh is quickly released in response to epileptic, but not physiological, stimuli. Inhibition of neuronal glutamate transporters by Shh depends on heterotrimeric G protein subunit Gαi and enhances extracellular glutamate levels. Inhibiting Shh signaling greatly reduces epileptiform activities in both cell cultures and hippocampal slices. Moreover, pharmacological or genetic inhibition of Shh signaling markedly suppresses epileptic phenotypes in kindling or pilocarpine models. Our results suggest that Shh contributes to the development of epilepsy and suppression of its signaling prevents the development of the disease. Thus, Shh can act as a modulator of neuronal activity, rapidly regulating glutamate levels and promoting epilepsy.

Neuroprotection Promoted by Guanosine Depends on Glutamine Synthetase and Glutamate Transporters Activity in Hippocampal Slices Subjected to Oxygen/Glucose Deprivation.

Guanosine (GUO) has been shown to act as a neuroprotective agent against glutamatergic excitotoxicity by increasing glutamate uptake and decreasing its release. In this study, a putative effect of GUO action on glutamate transporters activity modulation was assessed in hippocampal slices subjected to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), an in vitro model of brain ischemia. Slices subjected to OGD showed increased excitatory amino acids release (measured by D-[(3)H]aspartate release) that was prevented in the presence of GUO (100µM). The glutamate transporter blockers, DL-TBOA (10µM), DHK (100µM, selective inhibitor of GLT-1), and sulfasalazine (SAS, 250µM, Xc(-) system inhibitor) decreased OGD-induced D-aspartate release. Interestingly, DHK or DL-TBOA blocked the decrease in glutamate release induced by GUO, whereas SAS did not modify the GUO effect. GUO protectedhippocampal slices from cellular damage by modulation of glutamate transporters,however selective blockade of GLT-1 or Xc- system only did not affect this protective action of GUO. OGD decreased hippocampal glutamine synthetase (GS) activity and GUO recovered GS activity to control levels without altering the kinetic parameters of GS activity, thus suggesting GUO does not directly interact with GS. Additionally, the pharmacological inhibition of GS activity with methionine sulfoximine abolished the effect of GUO in reducing D-aspartate release and cellular damage evoked by OGD. Altogether, results in hippocampal slices subjected to OGD show that GUO counteracts the release of excitatory amino acids, stimulates the activity of GS, and decreases the cellular damage by modulation of glutamate transporters activity.

Environmental and pharmacological modulation of molecular pathogenesis in Huntington's disease

Event Abstract Back to Event Environmental and pharmacological modulation of molecular pathogenesis in Huntington's disease Thibault Renoir1*, Dean J. Wright1, Laura J. Gray2, David I. Finkelstein1, Peter J. Crouch1, David Pow3, Terence Pang1, Shanshan Li1, Zoe M. Smith2, Paul S. Francis2 and Anthony J. Hannan1 1 University of Melbourne, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia 2 Deakin University, School of Medicine, Australia 3 The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, The University of Queensland Centre for Clinical Research, Australia Huntington’s disease (HD) is a devastating neurodegenerative disorder involving the progressive development of psychiatric symptoms, cognitive deficits and motor impairment. Our group was the first to show that female R6/1 HD mice display depression-related behaviours, prior to cognitive and motor deficits, consistent with the progressive development of clinical symptoms in HD. Glutamatergic dysfunction has been implicated in the pathogenesis of depressive disorders and HD. The aim of the present study was to establish whether cysteine supplementation, using N-acetylcysteine (NAC) could ameliorate glutamate pathology through the cystine-dependent transporters, system xc- and GLT-1. We demonstrate that the R6/1 transgenic mouse model of HD has lower basal levels of cystine, and showed depressive-like behaviours in the forced-swim test. Administration of NAC reversed these behaviours. This effect was blocked by co-administration of the system xc- and GLT-1 inhibitors CPG and DHK, showing that glutamate transporter activity was required for the antidepressant effects of NAC. NAC was also able to specifically increase glutamate in mice, in a glutamate transporter-dependent manner. Furthermore, NAC was able to rescue changes in key glutamate receptor proteins related to excitotoxicity in HD, including NMDAR2B. These findings have implications for the development of new therapeutic approaches for depressive disorders. Keywords: antidepressant, neurodegenerative disorder, glutamate transporter, Huntington’s disease, transgenic model Conference: 14th Meeting of the Asian-Pacific Society for Neurochemistry, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 27 Aug - 30 Aug, 2016. Presentation Type: YIC03: Young Investigator Colloquium 3 Topic: 14th Meeting of the Asian-Pacific Society for Neurochemistry Citation: Renoir T, Wright DJ, Gray LJ, Finkelstein DI, Crouch PJ, Pow D, Pang T, Li S, Smith ZM, Francis PS and Hannan AJ (2016). Environmental and pharmacological modulation of molecular pathogenesis in Huntington's disease. Conference Abstract: 14th Meeting of the Asian-Pacific Society for Neurochemistry. doi: 10.3389/conf.fncel.2016.36.00062 Copyright: The abstracts in this collection have not been subject to any Frontiers peer review or checks, and are not endorsed by Frontiers. They are made available through the Frontiers publishing platform as a service to conference organizers and presenters. The copyright in the individual abstracts is owned by the author of each abstract or his/her employer unless otherwise stated. Each abstract, as well as the collection of abstracts, are published under a Creative Commons CC-BY 4.0 (attribution) licence (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/) and may thus be reproduced, translated, adapted and be the subject of derivative works provided the authors and Frontiers are attributed. For Frontiers’ terms and conditions please see https://www.frontiersin.org/legal/terms-and-conditions. Received: 04 Aug 2016; Published Online: 11 Aug 2016. * Correspondence: Dr. Thibault Renoir, University of Melbourne, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia, tibo.renoir@gmail.com Login Required This action requires you to be registered with Frontiers and logged in. To register or login click here. Abstract Info Abstract The Authors in Frontiers Thibault Renoir Dean J Wright Laura J Gray David I Finkelstein Peter J Crouch David Pow Terence Pang Shanshan Li Zoe M Smith Paul S Francis Anthony J Hannan Google Thibault Renoir Dean J Wright Laura J Gray David I Finkelstein Peter J Crouch David Pow Terence Pang Shanshan Li Zoe M Smith Paul S Francis Anthony J Hannan Google Scholar Thibault Renoir Dean J Wright Laura J Gray David I Finkelstein Peter J Crouch David Pow Terence Pang Shanshan Li Zoe M Smith Paul S Francis Anthony J Hannan PubMed Thibault Renoir Dean J Wright Laura J Gray David I Finkelstein Peter J Crouch David Pow Terence Pang Shanshan Li Zoe M Smith Paul S Francis Anthony J Hannan Related Article in Frontiers Google Scholar PubMed Abstract Close Back to top Javascript is disabled. Please enable Javascript in your browser settings in order to see all the content on this page.

Ceftriaxone attenuates acute cocaine-evoked dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens of the rat.

Ceftriaxone is a β-lactam antibiotic and glutamate transporter activator that reduces the reinforcing effects of psychostimulants. Ceftriaxone also reduces locomotor activation following acute psychostimulant exposure, suggesting that alterations in dopamine transmission in the nucleus accumbens contribute to its mechanism of action. In the present studies we tested the hypothesis that pretreatment with ceftriaxone disrupts acute cocaine-evoked dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were pretreated with saline or ceftriaxone (200 mg kg(-1) , i.p. × 10 days) and then challenged with cocaine (15 mg kg(-1) , i.p.). Motor activity, dopamine efflux (via in vivo microdialysis) and protein levels of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), the dopamine transporter and organic cation transporter as well as α-synuclein, Akt and GSK3β were analysed in the nucleus accumbens. Ceftriaxone-pretreated rats challenged with cocaine displayed reduced locomotor activity and accumbal dopamine efflux compared with saline-pretreated controls challenged with cocaine. The reduction in cocaine-evoked dopamine levels was not counteracted by excitatory amino acid transporter 2 blockade in the nucleus accumbens. Pretreatment with ceftriaxone increased Akt/GSK3β signalling in the nucleus accumbens and reduced levels of dopamine transporter, TH and phosphorylated α-synuclein, indicating that ceftriaxone affects numerous proteins involved in dopaminergic transmission. These results are the first evidence that ceftriaxone affects cocaine-evoked dopaminergic transmission, in addition to its well-described effects on glutamate, and suggest that its ability to attenuate cocaine-induced behaviours, such as psychomotor activity, is due in part to reduced dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens.

Establishment and characterization of a new conditionally immortalized human astrocyte cell line.

Astrocytes are the most abundant cell types in mammalian brains, within which they participate in various neuronal activities, partly by utilizing the numerous transporters expressed at their plasma membranes. Accordingly, detailed characterization of astrocytic functions, including transporters, are essential for understanding of mechanistic basis of normal brain functions, as well as the pathogenesis and treatment of various brain diseases. As a part of overall efforts to facilitate such studies, this study reports on the establishment of a new human astrocyte cell line, which is hereafter referred to as human astrocyte/conditionally immortalized, clone 35 (HASTR/ci35). This line, which was developed utilizing a cell immortalization method, showed excellent proliferative ability and expressed various astrocyte markers, including glial fibrillary acidic protein. When co-cultured with neuronal cells, HASTR/ci35 cells could facilitate their dendritic network formation. Furthermore, HASTR/ci35 cells not only possessed significant glutamate and adenosine transporter activities but also exhibited organic ion transporter activities. To summarize, HASTR/ci35 cells possess several key astrocytic characteristics, including various transporter functions, while simultaneously showing infinite proliferation and scalability. Based on these findings, HASTR/ci35 cells can be expected to contribute significantly to various human astrocyte study fields. In vitro astrocyte models are valuable experimental tools in various astrocyte studies. Here, we report the establishment of a new human astrocyte cell line, HASTR/ci35, which show various key astrocyte properties, including astrocytic transporter activities, glycogen storage and facilitation of neuronal cell differentiation. Thus, HASTR/ci35 is expected to significantly contribute to advances toward detailed understanding of human astrocyte functions.

Neuroprotective Effects of the Glutamate Transporter Activator (R)-(-)-5-methyl-1-nicotinoyl-2-pyrazoline (MS-153) following Traumatic Brain Injury in the Adult Rat.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) in humans and in animals leads to an acute and sustained increase in tissue glutamate concentrations within the brain, triggering glutamate-mediated excitotoxicity. Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) are responsible for maintaining extracellular central nervous system glutamate concentrations below neurotoxic levels. Our results demonstrate that as early as 5 min and up to 2 h following brain trauma in brain-injured rats, the activity (Vmax) of EAAT2 in the cortex and the hippocampus was significantly decreased, compared with sham-injured animals. The affinity for glutamate (KM) and the expression of glutamate transporter 1 (GLT-1) and glutamate aspartate transporter (GLAST) were not altered by the injury. Administration of (R)-(-)-5-methyl-1-nicotinoyl-2-pyrazoline (MS-153), a GLT-1 activator, beginning immediately after injury and continuing for 24 h, significantly decreased neurodegeneration, loss of microtubule-associated protein 2 and NeuN (+) immunoreactivities, and attenuated calpain activation in both the cortex and the hippocampus at 24 h after the injury; the reduction in neurodegeneration remained evident up to 14 days post-injury. In synaptosomal uptake assays, MS-153 up-regulated GLT-1 activity in the naïve rat brain but did not reverse the reduced activity of GLT-1 in traumatically-injured brains. This study demonstrates that administration of MS-153 in the acute post-traumatic period provides acute and long-term neuroprotection for TBI and suggests that the neuroprotective effects of MS-153 are related to mechanisms other than GLT-1 activation, such as the inhibition of voltage-gated calcium channels.

Methylphenidate Increases Glutamate Uptake in Bergmann Glial Cells

Glutamate, the main excitatory transmitter in the vertebrate brain, exerts its actions through the activation of specific membrane receptors present in neurons and glial cells. Over-stimulation of glutamate receptors results in neuronal death, phenomena known as excitotoxicity. A family of glutamate uptake systems, mainly expressed in glial cells, removes the amino acid from the synaptic cleft preventing an excessive glutamatergic stimulation and thus neuronal damage. Autism spectrum disorders comprise a group of syndromes characterized by impaired social interactions and anxiety. One or the most common drugs prescribed to treat these disorders is Methylphenidate, known to increase dopamine extracellular levels, although it is not clear if its sedative effects are related to a plausible regulation of the glutamatergic tone via the regulation of the glial glutamate uptake systems. To gain insight into this possibility, we used the well-established model system of cultured chick cerebellum Bergmann glia cells. A time and dose-dependent increase in the activity and protein levels of glutamate transporters was detected upon Methylphenidate exposure. Interestingly, this increase is the result of an augmentation of both the synthesis as well as the insertion of these protein complexes in the plasma membrane. These results favour the notion that glial cells are Methylphenidate targets, and that by these means could regulate dopamine turnover.

Ammonia impairs glutamatergic communication in astroglial cells: protective role of resveratrol

Ammonia is a key toxin in the precipitation of hepatic encephalopathy (HE), a neuropsychiatric disorder associated with liver failure. In response to ammonia, various toxic events are triggered in astroglial cells, and alterations in brain glutamate communication are common. Resveratrol is a polyphenolic compound that has been extensively studied in pathological events because it presents several beneficial effects, including some in the central nervous system (CNS). We previously described that resveratrol is able to significantly modulate glial functioning and has a protective effect during ammonia challenge in vitro. In this study, we addressed the mechanisms by which resveratrol can protect C6 astroglial cells from glutamatergic alterations induced by ammonia. Resveratrol was able to prevent all the effects triggered by ammonia: (i) decrease in glutamate uptake activity and expression of the EAAC1 glutamate transporter, the main glutamate transporter present in C6 cells; (ii) increase of glutamate release, which was also dependent on the activation of the Na+-K+-Cl− co-transporter NKCC1; (iii) reduction in GS activity and intracellular GSH content; and (iv) impairment of Na+K+-ATPase activity. Interestingly, resveratrol, per se, also positively modulated the astroglial functions evaluated. Moreover, we demonstrated that heme oxygenase 1 (HO1), an enzyme that is part of the cellular defense system, mediated some of the effects of resveratrol. In conclusion, the mechanisms of the putative protective role of resveratrol against ammonia toxicity involve the modulation of pathways and molecules related to glutamate communication in astroglial cells.

Enhancing glutamatergic transmission during adolescence reverses early-life stress-induced deficits in the rewarding effects of cocaine in rats

Adolescence marks a critical time when the brain is highly susceptible to pathological insult yet also uniquely amenable to therapeutic intervention. It is during adolescence that the onset of the majority of psychiatric disorders, including substance use disorder (SUDs), occurs. It has been well established that stress, particularly during early development, can contribute to the pathological changes which contribute to the development of SUDs. Glutamate as the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS plays a key role in various physiological processes, including reward function, and in mediating the effects of psychological stress. We hypothesised impairing glutamatergic signalling during the key adolescent period would attenuate early-life stress induced impaired reward function. To test this, we induced early-life stress in male rats using the maternal-separation procedure. During the critical adolescent period (PND25–46) animals were treated with the glutamate transporter activator, riluzole, or the NMDA receptor antagonist, memantine. Adult reward function was assessed using voluntary cocaine intake measured via intravenous self-administration. We found that early-life stress in the form of maternal-separation impaired reward function, reducing the number of successful cocaine-infusions achieved during the intravenous self-administration procedure as well impairing drug-induced reinstatement of cocaine-taking behaviour. Interestingly, riluzole and memantine treatment reversed this stress-induced impairment. These data suggest that reducing glutamatergic signalling may be a viable therapeutic strategy for treating vulnerable individuals at risk of developing SUDs including certain adolescent populations, particularly those which may have experienced trauma during early-life.

Gabapentin inhibits the activity of the rat excitatory glutamate transporter 3 expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Gabapentin, a derivative of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), is used to treat epilepsy and neuropathic pain. The pharmacological mechanisms for gabapentin effects are not completely elucidated. We investigated the effect of gabapentin on the activity of excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3) that can regulate extracellular glutamate concentrations. EAAT3 was expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Membrane currents were recorded after application of l-glutamate in the presence or absence of different concentrations of gabapentin (1–300μM) by using a two-electrode voltage clamp. To determine the effect of gabapentin on Vmax and Km of EAAT3 for l-glutamate, l-glutamate at 3–300μM was used. To study the effects of protein kinase C (PKC) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) on gabapentin-induced changes in EAAT3 activity, oocytes were incubated with the PKC activator (Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate, PMA), the PKC inhibitors (chelerythrine or staurosporine), and the PI3K inhibitor wortmannin. Gabapentin decreased EAAT3 activity in a concentration-dependent manner and EAAT3 activity was significantly inhibited by 10–300μM gabapentin. Gabapentin significantly decreased Vmax without affecting Km. PMA increased EAAT3 activity; however, gabapentin attenuated the PMA-induced increase in EAAT3 activity. Pre-incubation of oocytes with chelerythrine, staurosporine, or wortmannin decreased basal EAAT3 activity, which was further reduced by gabapentin. We conclude that gabapentin decreases EAAT3 activity at clinically relevant and higher concentrations, in which PKC and PI3K may not be involved. The results suggest that EAAT3 might not be a target for the anticonvulsant action of gabapentin.

The glutamate transport inhibitor DL-Threo-β-Benzyloxyaspartic acid (DL-TBOA) differentially affects SN38- and oxaliplatin-induced death of drug-resistant colorectal cancer cells.

BackgroundColorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer death globally and new biomarkers and treatments are severely needed.MethodsHere, we employed HCT116 and LoVo human CRC cells made resistant to either SN38 or oxaliplatin, to investigate whether altered expression of the high affinity glutamate transporters Solute Carrier (SLC)-1A1 and -1A3 (EAAT3, EAAT1) is associated with the resistant phenotypes. Analyses included real-time quantitative PCR, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence analyses, radioactive tracer flux measurements, and biochemical analyses of cell viability and glutathione content. Results were evaluated using one- and two-way ANOVA and Students two-tailed t-test, as relevant.ResultsIn SN38-resistant HCT116 and LoVo cells, SLC1A1 expression was down-regulated ~60 % and up-regulated ~4-fold, respectively, at both mRNA and protein level, whereas SLC1A3 protein was undetectable. The changes in SLC1A1 expression were accompanied by parallel changes in DL-Threo-β-Benzyloxyaspartic acid (TBOA)-sensitive, UCPH101-insensitive [3H]-D-Aspartate uptake, consistent with increased activity of SLC1A1 (or other family members), yet not of SLC1A3. DL-TBOA co-treatment concentration-dependently augmented loss of cell viability induced by SN38, while strongly counteracting that induced by oxaliplatin, in both HCT116 and LoVo cells. This reflected neither altered expression of the oxaliplatin transporter Cu2+-transporter-1 (CTR1), nor changes in cellular reduced glutathione (GSH), although HCT116 cell resistance per se correlated with increased cellular GSH. DL-TBOA did not significantly alter cellular levels of p21, cleaved PARP-1, or phospho-Retinoblastoma protein, yet altered SLC1A1 subcellular localization, and reduced chemotherapy-induced p53 induction.ConclusionsSLC1A1 expression and glutamate transporter activity are altered in SN38-resistant CRC cells. Importantly, the non-selective glutamate transporter inhibitor DL-TBOA reduces chemotherapy-induced p53 induction and augments CRC cell death induced by SN38, while attenuating that induced by oxaliplatin. These findings may point to novel treatment options in treatment-resistant CRC.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1405-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.