Global Precipitation Measurement Research Articles

A D-vine copula-based quantile regression towards merging satellite precipitation products over rugged topography: a case study in the upper Tekeze–Atbara Basin

Abstract. Precipitation is a vital key element in various studies of hydrology, flood prediction, drought monitoring, and water resource management. The main challenge in conducting studies over remote regions with rugged topography is that weather stations are usually scarce and unevenly distributed. However, open-source satellite-based precipitation products (SPPs) with a suitable resolution provide alternative options in these data-scarce regions, which are typically associated with high uncertainty. To reduce the uncertainty of individual satellite products, we have proposed a D-vine copula-based quantile regression (DVQR) model to merge multiple SPPs with rain gauges (RGs). The DVQR model was employed during the 2001–2017 summer monsoon seasons and compared with two other quantile regression methods based on the multivariate linear (MLQR) and the Bayesian model averaging (BMAQ) techniques, respectively, and with two traditional merging methods – the simple modeling average (SMA) and the one-outlier-removed average (OORA) – using descriptive and categorical statistics. Four SPPs have been considered in this study, namely, Tropical Applications of Meteorology using SATellite (TAMSAT v3.1), the Climate Prediction Center MORPHing Product Climate Data Record (CMORPH-CDR), Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for GPM (IMERG v06), and Precipitation Estimation from Remotely Sensed Information using Artificial Neural Networks (PERSIANN-CDR). The bilinear (BIL) interpolation technique was applied to downscale SPPs from a coarse to a fine spatial resolution (1 km). The rugged-topography region of the upper Tekeze–Atbara Basin (UTAB) in Ethiopia was selected as the study area. The results indicate that the precipitation data estimates with the DVQR, MLQR, and BMAQ models and with traditional merging methods outperform the downscaled SPPs. Monthly evaluations reveal that all products perform better in July and September than in June and August due to precipitation variability. The DVQR, MLQR, and BMAQ models exhibit higher accuracy than the traditional merging methods over the UTAB. The DVQR model substantially improved all of the statistical metrics (CC = 0.80, NSE = 0.615, KGE = 0.785, MAE = 1.97 mm d−1, RMSE = 2.86 mm d−1, and PBIAS = 0.96 %) considered compared with the BMAQ and MLQR models. However, the DVQR model did not outperform the BMAQ and MLQR models with respect to the probability of detection (POD) and false-alarm ratio (FAR), although it had the best frequency bias index (FBI) and critical success index (CSI) among all of the employed models. Overall, the newly proposed merging approach improves the quality of SPPs and demonstrates the value of the proposed DVQR model in merging multiple SPPs over regions with rugged topography such as the UTAB.

The performance of IMERG near-real-time estimations during the record-breaking Meiyu season in 2020

The extreme Meiyu season, characterized by continuous heavy precipitation, is often leads to numerous flood-related disasters. Accurate and timely monitoring of extreme Meiyu precipitation is crucial for the effective prevention and mitigation of these disasters. The near-real-time (NRT) products from Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG), specifically IMERG-E and IMERG-L products, have high potential utility to acquire timely precipitation data. Therefore, it is important to quantify their errors and uncertainties during the extreme Meiyu season. In this study, we assess and compare the performance of IMERG NRT products with Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation Motion Vector Kalman product (GSMaP-MVK) using hourly gauge observations during the recor-breaking Meiyu event in 2020. The main conclusions are as follows: all three satellite products generally capture the spatial–temporal evolution of Meiyu precipitation, with IMERG-L showing the closest agreement with gauge observations, particularly for the precipitation center. In terms of the statistical and volumetric categorical metrics, IMERG-L performs best among the three products, while IMERG-E does not exhibit superior performance compared to GSMaP-MVK. Regarding the diurnal cycle, IMERG-L generally reproduces the diurnal cycle of observed precipitation amount with a peak time occurring two hours earlier. In contrast, both IMERG-E and GSMaP-MVK exhibit notably poorer performance. When it comes to the diurnal cycle of precipitation frequency and intensity, both IMERG products display bad performance in reproducing their diurnal variations. Furthermore, all three satellite products show a wet biases for light precipitation and a dry biases for heavy precipitation, which is consistent with previous evaluation studies. However, a novel phenomenon is noticed that theses biases tend to worsen significantly in the afternoon compared to the morning. Although this study is limited to a case study, the findings can serve as a valuable reference for the NRT applications of IMERG products during the extreme Meiyu seasons and provide insights for the improvement of IMERG algorithm.

Flood peak estimation for the keureuto watershed using the hydrological modeling system HEC-HMS

The Keureuto watershed has been the water resource used mainly for irrigation and municipal use. Extreme rainfall along with changes in the system may trigger rainfall excess causing flood at downstream. The occurrences may impact the usability of the system that supports the water resources supply. Investigating the impact of the floods requires initial research on the rainfall-runoff process of the watershed system. Rainfall-runoff modeling is an approach widely used for estimating the discharge hydrograph of the river as the result of the processes. The HEC-HMS rainfall-runoff model tool is applied in this study to estimate the peak flood discharge for the Keureto watershed located in the North Aceh region. The data used are satellite Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) data and Automatic Water Level Recorder (AWLR) data at the watershed outlet. The 302 km2 Keureuto Watershed is divided into 23 sub-basins for the HEC-HMS model. The SCS Curve Number is applied to the model. The simulated freturncompared to the observed flow using the Nash Sutcliffe Efficiency criteria which returns the NSE value of 0.38 for seven years simulation, based on data of year 2015 to 2021. At an event based on October 2020 to March 2021, the NSE value returns 0.52, satisfactory for the simulation data range. The highest peak of the event is captured by the model simulation in the timing and the magnitude which value lower 20% from the observed flow.

Sea Ice Detection Method Using the Dependence of the Radar Cross-Section on the Incidence Angle

The method for sea ice detection using the data from the Dual-frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) onboard the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) satellite data is suggested. The approach is based on the analysis of the shape of normalized radar cross-section dependence on the incidence angle. The coefficient of kurtosis of surface slopes probability density function is introduced as a parameter to distinguish between open water and ice cover. The approach was validated using the data on sea ice concentration from the AMSR-2 radiometer in the Antarctic region.

Detection and characterization of hailstorms over France using DPR data onboard the GPM Core Observatory

Hailstorms cause heavy losses, especially when their hailstones reach a large size. One of the European regions most affected by these severe atmospheric events is southern France, where a valuable and extensive hailpad network has been operational for more than three decades. These direct observations are extremely useful because they allow for the definitive verification of hailfall at the ground. Space-based sensors have seen increasing importance in hail monitoring. Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) is an international mission designed to advance precipitation measurements from multispectral sensors. The GPM core satellite carries a powerful and unprecedented Dual-Frequency Precipitation Radar (DPR) for studying 3D precipitation characteristics. The objective of the present study is to evaluate the DPR sensor ability to identify hailstorms. We identified eight hailstorms over France where DPR data were coincident with ground-based observations from a hailpad network during 2014–2021. In addition, variables provided by the DPR sensor indicative of hail presence were studied and five detection algorithms were tested. This research serves as background for future work and the development of prediction algorithms based on empirical relationships with GPM data.

Enhanced Tropical Cyclone Precipitation Prediction in the Northwest Pacific Using Deep Learning Models and Ensemble Techniques

This study focuses on optimizing precipitation forecast induced by tropical cyclones (TCs) in the Northwest Pacific region, with lead times ranging from 6 to 72 h. The research employs deep learning models, such as U-Net, UNet3+, SE-Net, and SE-UNet3+, which utilize precipitation forecast data from the Global Forecast System (GFS) and real-time GFS environmental background data using a U-Net structure. To comprehensively make use of the precipitation forecasts from these models, we additionally use probabilistic matching (PM) and simple averaging (AVR) in rainfall prediction. The precipitation data from the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Mission serves as the rainfall observation. The results demonstrate that the root mean squared errors (RMSEs) of U-Net, UNet3+, SE-UNet, SE-UNet3+, AVR, and PM are lowered by 8.7%, 10.1%, 9.7%, 10.0%, 11.4%, and 11.5%, respectively, when compared with the RMSE of the GFS TC precipitation forecasts, while the mean absolute errors are reduced by 9.6%, 11.3%, 9.0%, 12.0%, 12.8%, and 13.0%, respectively. Furthermore, the neural network model improves the precipitation threat scores (TSs). On average, the TSs of U-Net, UNet3+, SE-UNet, SE-UNet3+, AVR, and PM are raised by 12.8%, 21.3%, 19.3%, 20.7%, 22.5%, and 22.9%, respectively, compared with the GFS model. Notably, AVR and PM outperform all other individual models, with PM’s performance slightly better than AVR’s. The most important feature variables in optimizing TC precipitation forecast in the Northwest Pacific region based on the UNet-based neural network include GFS precipitation forecast data, land and sea masks, latitudinal winds at 500 hPa, and vertical winds at 500 hPa.

The Extreme Rainfall Events of the 2020 Typhoon Season in Vietnam as Seen by Seven Different Precipitation Products

A series of typhoons and tropical storms have produced extreme precipitation events in Vietnam during the first part of the 2020 monsoon season: events of this magnitude pose significant challenges to remote sensing Quantitative Precipitation Estimation (QPE) techniques. The weather-monitoring needs of modern human activities require that these challenges be overcome. In order to address this issue, in this work, seven precipitation products were validated with high spatial and temporal detail against over 1200 rain gauges in Vietnam during six case studies tailored around the most intense events of 2020. The data sources included the Vietnamese weather radar network, IMERG Early run and Final run, the South Korean GEO-KOMPSAT-2A and Chinese FengYun-4A geostationary satellites, DPR on board the GPM-Core Observatory, and European ERA5-Land reanalysis. All products were resampled to a standardized 0.02° grid and compared at hourly scale with ground stations measurements. The results indicated that the radars product was the most capable of reproducing the information collected by the rain gauges during the selected extreme events, with a correlation coefficient of 0.70 and a coefficient of variation of 1.38. However, it exhibited some underestimation, approximately 30%, in both occurrence and intensity. Conversely, geostationary products tended to overestimate moderate rain rates (FY-4A) and areas with low precipitation (GK-2A). More complex products such as ERA5-Land and IMERG failed to capture the highest intensities typical of extreme events, while GPM-DPR showed promising results in detecting the highest rain rates, but its capability to observe isolated events was limited by its intermittent coverage.

Evaluating the Effects of Raindrop Motion on the Accuracy of the Precipitation Inversion Algorithm by X-SAR

Precipitation has a profound impact on both human life and the natural environment. X-band synthetic aperture radar (X-SAR) utilizes high-resolution microwave remote-sensing technology, providing opportunities for global precipitation measurements. The current precipitation inversion algorithms from X-SAR measurements assume that precipitation particles remain relatively stationary with the ground. However, the motion of raindrops could potentially reduce the accuracy of these algorithms. In this study, we first established a functional relationship between raindrop motion and SAR echoes based on the standard deviation of the raindrop Doppler velocity spectrum. Secondly, an exploratory algorithm was proposed to retrieve rainfall distribution under the raindrop motion error model (RMM) and quantitatively calculate the precipitation inversion error caused by raindrop motion. In comparison to conditions where the atmosphere is stationary, when the standard deviation of the Doppler velocity spectrum of raindrops is 1.1 m/s, the relative error of the retrieved surface rain rate increases from 2.1% to 35.8%. Numerical simulations show that SAR echoes are sensitive to changes in the standard deviation of the Doppler velocity spectrum, and the impact of raindrop motion on the accuracy of X-SAR precipitation measurements cannot be neglected.

Rainfall Area Identification Algorithm Based on Himawari-8 Satellite Data and Analysis of its Spatiotemporal Characteristics

Real-time monitoring of rainfall areas based on satellite remote sensing is of vital importance for extreme rainfall research and disaster prediction. In this study, a new rainfall area identification algorithm was developed for the new generation of geostationary satellites with high spatial and temporal resolution and rich bands. As the main drivers of the rainfall process, the macro and micro physical properties of clouds play an important role in the formation and development of rainfall. We considered differences in the absorption capacity of the water vapor absorption channels in the infrared band and introduced a sensitivity difference of rainfall area in water vapor channels to construct a sensitive detection of the water vapor region. The results of this algorithm were evaluated using Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) satellite products and CloudSat measurements in various scenarios, with hit rates of 70.03% and 81.39% and false alarm rates of 2.05% and 21.34%, respectively. Spatiotemporal analysis revealed that the types of upper clouds in the rainfall areas mainly consisted of deep convection, cirrostratus, and nimbostratus clouds. Our study provides supporting data for weather research and disaster prediction, as well as an efficient and reliable method for capturing temporal and spatial features.

Evaluation and Comparison of Reanalysis Data for Runoff Simulation in the Data-Scarce Watersheds of Alpine Regions

Reanalysis datasets provide a reliable reanalysis of climate input data for hydrological models in regions characterized by limited weather station coverage. In this paper, the accuracy of precipitation, the maximum and minimum temperatures of four reanalysis datasets, the China Meteorological Assimilation Driving Datasets for the SWAT model (CMADS), time-expanded climate forecast system reanalysis (CFSR+), the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecast Reanalysis (ERA). and the China Meteorological Forcing Dataset (CMFD), were evaluated by using data from 28 ground-based observations (OBs) in the Source of the Yangtze and Yellow Rivers (SYYR) region and were used as input data for the SWAT model for runoff simulation and performance evaluation, respectively. And, finally, the CMADS was optimized using Integrated Calibrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (AIMERG) data. The results show that CMFD is the most representative reanalysis data for precipitation characteristics in the SYYR region among the four reanalysis datasets evaluated in this paper, followed by ERA5 and CFSR, while CMADS performs satisfactorily for temperature simulations in this region, but underestimates precipitation. And we contend that the accuracy of runoff simulations is notably contingent upon the precision of daily precipitation within the reanalysis dataset. The runoff simulations in this region do not effectively capture the extreme runoff characteristics of the Yellow River and Yangtze River sources. The refinement of CMADS through the integration of AIMERG satellite precipitation data emerges as a potent strategy for enhancing the precision of runoff simulations. This research can provide a reference for selecting meteorological data products and optimization methods for hydrological process simulation in areas with few meteorological stations.

Comparison and Synthesis of Precipitation Data from CloudSat CPR and GPM KaPR

Employing different bands of radar to detect precipitation information in identical regions enables the acquisition of a more comprehensive precipitation cloud structure, thereby refining the continuity and completeness of precipitation measurements. This study first compared the coincident data from CloudSat W-band cloud profiling radar (CPR) and Global Precipitation Measurement Mission (GPM) Ka-band precipitation radar (KaPR) from 2014 to 2017, and then a synthesis of the radar reflectivity from CPR and KaPR was attempted to obtain a complete cloud and precipitation structure. The findings of the reflectivity comparisons indicated that the echo-top height identified by CPR is on average 3.6 to 4.2 km higher than that from KaPR, due to the higher sensitivity. Because of strong attenuation of CPR by liquid-phase particles, the reflectivity below the height of the melting layer usually shows an opposite gradient to KaPR with decreasing altitude. The difference in the near-surface rain rates of CPR and KaPR was found to be related to reflectivity gradients in the vertical direction, and the larger the reflectivity gradients, the greater the differences in near-surface rain rates. For better representing the complete vertical structure of precipitation clouds and improving the consistency of the reflectivity and precipitation rate, the radar reflectivity was weighted, synthesized from CPR and KaPR based on the gradient difference of the reflectivity from the two radars. We presented the synthesis results for a stratiform cloud and a deep convective case, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (rs) between the GPM combined radiometer precipitation rate and the radar reflectivity was utilized to analyze the performance of the synthesis. The consistency between synthesized reflectivity and precipitation rate in the non-liquid phase was improved compared with KaPR, and the rs of the ice and mixed phases was increased by about 12% and 10%, respectively.

Evaluation of IMERG and GSMaP for Tropical Cyclone Applications

AbstractThis study compares rainfall from NASA Integrated Multi‐satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG V06) and JAXA Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP V4) for tropical cyclone (TC) applications against satellite microwave‐derived Goddard Profiling Algorithm (GPROF V05) precipitation data retrieved from 2000 to 2012. From a global data set of storms, all three products show consistent patterns in 1‐dimensional azimuthal averages and in 2‐dimensional rainfall distributions (where spatial correlation values are near 1.0). However, both IMERG and GSMaP overestimate precipitation amounts against GPROF, and IMERG overestimations are much higher than GSMaP within 125 km of the storm center. Based on this analysis, IMERG and GSMaP rainfall could be used to analyze TC precipitation patterns at high spatiotemporal resolutions. However, caution is required if high accuracy TC precipitation amplitude is required, particularly for IMERG. This study highlights opportunities to improve future versions of IMERG and GSMaP retrieval processing to reduce the discrepancies with GPROF.

Bias Correction of IMERG Data in the Mountainous Areas of Sumatra Based on A Single Gauge Observation

The performance of surface precipitation data from satellite precipitation products (SPPs) in mountainous areas has greater error and bias than in plain areas. In this study, linear scaling (LS), local intensity (LOCI), power transformation (PT), and cumulative distribution function (CDF) methods are used to correct the bias of Integrated Multi-Satellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG) data in the mountainous region of Sumatra based on long-term and high-resolution optical rain gauge (ORG) observations. The ORG is installed at Equatorial Atmospheric Observatory (EAO) in Kototabang, West Sumatra, Indonesia (100.32 °E, 0.20 °S, 865 m above sea level (ASL) with an observation period from 2002 to 2016. The impact of the bias correction method is tested based on accuracy and capability detection tests. The bias correction method is more effective at the daily resolution than the hourly resolution of the IMERG data in the mountainous region of Sumatra. The LS method exhibited the best improvement in accuracy with reduced root-mean-square error (RMSE) and relative bias (RB), although there was no significant increase in coefficient correlation (CC) values. However, the accuracy improvement was not observed in the bias correction for hourly data. The lack of improvement in the accuracy of the hourly IMERG data is due to the high local variability of rainfall in the mountainous area of Sumatra. The high data variability causes large differences in the mean and variance of the IMERG calibration and evaluation data periods. On the other hand, the LOCI, PT, and CDF methods were successfully improved the rain detection capability of IMERG, as indicated by the better critical succession index (CSI) values compared to the original hourly and daily IMERG data. It increased the CSI value by reducing false alarms for rain with intensity below 2 mm/h. Furthermore, the CDF method can improve the analysis of extreme rainfall in the mountainous region of Sumatra by improving the estimation of the extreme rainfall index. Therefore, these methods can be applied to improve the accuracy and detectability of IMERG data in the mountainous region of Sumatra. However, the scale factor and transfer function constructed in this study need to be further evaluated on other rain gauge observation data in Sumatra’s mountainous region to improve performance. HIGHLIGHTS The LS method shows the best improvement in the accuracy of IMERG data in the mountainous area of Sumatera compared to the LOCI, PT, and CDF methods, as indicated by the largest decrease in RMSE and RB values CSI values prove that LOCI, PT, and CDF methods successfully improve the detection capability of IMERG hourly and daily data in the mountainous region of Sumatra The CDF method shows the best quality in improving extreme rainfall observations in the mountainous region of Sumatra GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Comparative Analysis of the Latest Global Oceanic Precipitation Estimates from GPM V07 and GPCP V3.2 Products

Abstract Satellites bring opportunities to quantify precipitation amount and distribution over the globe, critical to understanding how the Earth system works. The amount and spatial distribution of oceanic precipitation from the latest versions (V07 and the previous version) of the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) Core Observatory instruments and selected members of the constellation of passive microwave sensors are quantified and compared with other products such as the Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP V3.2); the Merged CloudSat, TRMM, and GPM (MCTG) climatology; and ERA5. Results show that GPM V07 products have a higher precipitation rate than the previous version, except for the radar-only product. Within ∼65°S–65°N, covered by all of the instruments, this increase ranges from about 9% for the combined radar–radiometer product to about 16% for radiometer-only products. While GPM precipitation products still show lower mean precipitation rate than MCTG (except over the tropics and Arctic Ocean), the V07 products (except radar-only) are generally more consistent with MCTG and GPCP V3.2 than V05. Over the tropics (25°S–25°N), passive microwave sounders show the highest precipitation rate among all of the precipitation products studied and the highest increase (∼19%) compared to their previous version. Precipitation products are least consistent in midlatitude oceans in the Southern Hemisphere, displaying the largest spread in mean precipitation rate and location of latitudinal peak precipitation. Precipitation products tend to show larger spread over regions with low and high values of sea surface temperature and total precipitable water. The analysis highlights major discrepancies among the products and areas for future research.

Comparative analysis of bias correction methods for IMERG V06 precipitation products: case study in Guangxi, China

ABSTRACT This study investigates the effectiveness of three bias correction methods: linear scaling (LS), local intensity scaling (LOCI), and quantile mapping (QM) in correcting the bias of Integrated Multi-SatellitE Retrieval for Global Precipitation Measurement (IMERG) V06 products (IMERG-Early run (IMERG-E), IMERG-Late run (IMERG-L) and IMERG-Final run (IMERG-F)) at different spatial and temporal scales in Guangxi, China. The results reveal that the LS and LOCI are effective in reducing the relative bias (RB) and root mean square error (RMSE) of IMERG products at the regional and monthly scales, while the QM tends to increase the overestimation or underestimation of precipitation. The QM outperforms the other two methods in improving the correlation coefficient (CC) of IMERG products at the monthly and daily scales, especially for stations with low correlation before correction. None of the methods can effectively correct the extreme values of IMERG products at a daily scale, and the correction efficacy of the three methods is limited for IMERG-F, which has a high initial accuracy. The QM has an advantage in enhancing the correlation between IMERG and gauge data. LS and LOCI have great potential in correcting the bias of IMERG near-real-time products.

GPROF V7 and beyond: assessment of current and potential future versions of the GPROF passive microwave precipitation retrievals against ground radar measurements over the continental US and the Pacific Ocean

Abstract. The Goddard Profiling Algorithm (GPROF) is used operationally for the retrieval of surface precipitation and hydrometeor profiles from the passive microwave (PMW) observations of the Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) mission. Recent updates have led to GPROF V7, which has entered operational use in May 2022. In parallel, development is underway to improve the retrieval by transitioning to a neural-network-based algorithm called GPROF-NN. This study validates retrievals of liquid precipitation over snow-free and non-mountainous surfaces from GPROF V7 and multiple configurations of GPROF-NN against ground-based radar measurements over the conterminous United States (CONUS) and the tropical Pacific. GPROF retrievals from the GPM Microwave Imager (GMI) are validated over several years, and their ability to reproduce regional precipitation characteristics and effective resolution is assessed. Moreover, the retrieval accuracy for several other sensors of the constellation is evaluated. The validation of GPROF V7 indicates that the retrieval produces reliable estimates of liquid precipitation over the CONUS. During all four assessed years, annual mean precipitation is within 8 % of gauge-corrected radar measurements. Although biases of up to 25 % are observed over sub-regions of the CONUS and the tropical Pacific, the retrieval reliably reproduces each region's diurnal and seasonal precipitation characteristics. The effective resolution of GPROF V7 is found to be 51 km over the CONUS and 18 km over the tropical Pacific. GPROF V7 also produces robust precipitation estimates for the other sensors of the GPM constellation. The evaluation further shows that the GPROF-NN retrievals have the potential to significantly improve the GPM PMW precipitation retrievals. GPROF-NN 1D, the most basic neural network implementation of GPROF, improves the mean-squared error, mean absolute error, correlation and symmetric mean absolute percentage error of instantaneous precipitation estimates by about 20 % for GPROF GMI while the effective resolution is improved to 31 km over land and 15 km over oceans. The two GPROF-NN retrievals that are based on convolutional neural networks can further improve the accuracy up to the level of the combined radar–radiometer retrievals from the GPM core observatory. However, these retrievals are found to overfit on the viewing geometry at the center of the swath, reducing their overall accuracy to that of GPROF-NN 1D. For the other sensors of the constellation, the GPROF-NN retrievals produce larger biases than GPROF V7 and only GPROF-NN 3D achieves consistent improvements compared to GPROF V7 in terms of the other assessed error metrics. This points to shortcomings in the hydrometeor profiles or radiative transfer simulations used to generate the training data for the other sensors of the GPM constellation as a critical limitation for improving GPM PMW retrievals.

Assessment of snow simulation using Noah-MP land surface model forced by various precipitation sources in the Central Tianshan Mountains, Central Asia

Accurate mountainous snow estimation is paramount for hydrological processes and water resources estimation in arid regions. Using Land surface models (LSMs) is a practical numerical approach for snow estimation in a complex orography region such as the Tianshan Mountains. However, the bias of precipitation forcing is a major source of uncertainty for snow simulation over scarce-data regions. This study evaluated the performance of 4 km snow simulations using the Noah-MP LSM driven by eight precipitation sources. They are retrieved from non-model products and climate model simulations during the 2018-2019 cold season in the Central Tianshan Mountains (CTS) region. Multi-source validation datasets (in-situ observation, field snow pits, and remote sensing products) have been used for evaluation and uncertainty estimation. The results showed that the difference in precipitation amount significantly affected the snowpack simulation performance. Compared with non-model products (Global Land Data Assimilation System (GLDAS), Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM), and Gauge-adjusted Global Satellite Mapping of Precipitation (GSMaP)), the cold season precipitation from climate model simulations exhibited a better performance overall in the high-elevation regions (elevation > 1000 m) evaluated by in-situ observations. In addition, the 4 km convection-permitting modeling (CPM) precipitation (WRF-Morrison and WRF-WSM6) showed higher accuracy (RMSE: 23.48 mm/season and 18.94 mm/season, respectively) than gray-zone resolution simulations and ERA5-land driven runs in the high-elevation regions. The snow depth simulation driven by WRF-Morrison precipitation had the second smallest RMSE (4.67 cm/day) and lowest bias (-0.74 cm/day) value in the high-elevation regions compared with in-situ observation. Meanwhile, CPM precipitation-driven runs exhibited the smallest RMSE value based on the assessment of snow field pits. In addition, the CPM-driven simulation achieved the closest match to the elevation-based distribution of snow cover days in regions with elevation over 1000 m and duration over 60 days compared to the MODIS product. The findings of this study highlight that CPM with proper parameterization configurations has added values in producing realistic topographic precipitation for snow modeling using LSMs over data-scarcity mountainous areas.

Assessing sampling and retrieval errors of GPROF precipitation estimates over the Netherlands

Abstract. The Goddard Profiling algorithm (GPROF) converts radiometer observations from Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) constellation satellites into precipitation estimates. Typically, high-quality ground-based estimates serve as reference to evaluate GPROF's performance. To provide a fair comparison, the ground-based estimates are often spatially aligned to GPROF. However, GPROF combines observations from various sensors and channels, each associated with a distinct footprint. Consequently, uncertainties related to the representativeness of the sampled areas are introduced in addition to the uncertainty when converting brightness temperatures into precipitation intensities. The exact contribution of resampling precipitation estimates, required to spatially and temporally align different resolutions when combining or comparing precipitation observations, to the overall uncertainty remains unknown. Here, we analyze the current performance of GPROF over the Netherlands during a 4-year period (2017–2020) while investigating the uncertainty related to sampling. The latter is done by simulating the reference precipitation as satellite footprints that vary in size, geometry, and applied weighting technique. Only GPROF estimates based on observations from the conical-scanning radiometers of the GPM constellation are used. The reference estimates are gauge-adjusted radar precipitation estimates from two ground-based weather radars from the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI). Echo top heights (ETHs) retrieved from the same radars are used to classify the precipitation as shallow, medium, or deep. Spatial averaging methods (Gaussian weighting vs. arithmetic mean) minimally affect the magnitude of the precipitation estimates. Footprint size has a higher impact but cannot explain all discrepancies between the ground- and satellite-based estimates. Additionally, the discrepancies between GPROF and the reference are largest for low ETHs, while the relative bias between the different footprint sizes and implemented weighting methods increase with increasing ETHs. Lastly, our results do not show a clear difference between coastal and land simulations. We conclude that the uncertainty introduced by merging different channels and sensors cannot fully explain the discrepancies between satellite- and ground-based precipitation estimates. Hence, uncertainties related to the retrieval algorithm and environmental conditions are found to be more prominent than resampling uncertainties, in particular for shallow and light precipitation.

Estimation of Rainfall via IMERG-FR and Its Relationship with the Records of a Rain Gauge Network with Spatio-Temporal Variation, Case of Study: Mexican Semi-Arid Region

In the last few years, Satellite Precipitation Estimates (SPE) have been increasingly used for rainfall estimation applications. Their validity and accuracy are influenced by several factors related to the location where the SPEs are applied. The objective of this study is to evaluate the performance of the Integrated Multisatellite Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement Version 06 Half-Hour Temporal Resolution (IMERG-FR V06 HH) for rainfall estimation, as well as to determine its relationships with the hourly and daily rain gauge network data in a semiarid region during 2019–2021. The methodology contemplates the temporality, elevation, rainfall intensity, and rain gauge density variables, carrying out a point-to-pixel analysis using continuous, (Bias, r, ME, and RMSE), categorical (POD, FAR, and CSI), and volumetric (VHI, VFAR, and VCSI) statistical metrics to understand the different behaviors between the rain gauge and IMERG-FR V06 HH data. IMERG-FR greatly underestimated the heavy rainfall events in values of −63.54 to −23.58 mm/day and −25.29 to −11.74 mm/30 min; however, it overestimates the frequency of moderate rain events (1 to 25 mm/day). At making the correlation (r) between the temporal scales, the monthly temporal resolution was the one that better relates the measured and estimated data, as well as reported r values of 0.83 and 0.85, where records at shorter durations in IMERG-FR do not detect them. The weakness of this system, according to the literature and confirmed by the research findings, in the case of hydrological phenomena, is that recording or estimating short durations is essential for the water project, and therefore, the placement of rain gauges. The 1902–2101 m.a.s.l. range elevation has the best behavior between the data with the lowest error and best detection ability, of which IMERG-FR tended to overestimate the rain at higher altitudes. Considering that the r for two automated rain gauges per IMERG-FR pixel density was 0.74, this indicates that the automated rain gauges versus IMERG-FR have a better data fit than the rain gauges versus IMERG-FR. The distance to centroid and climatic evaluations did not show distinctive differences in the performance of IMERG. These findings are useful to improve the IMERG-FR algorithms, guide users about its performance at semiarid plateau regions, and assist in the recording of data for hydrological projects.

Research progress on the water vapor channel within the Yarlung Zsangbo Grand Canyon, China

The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program tasked a research team with the “Investigation of the water vapor channel of the Yarlung Zsangbo Grand Canyon (INVC)” in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). This paper summarizes the scientific achievements obtained from the data collected by the INVC observation network and highlights the progress in investigating the development of heavy rainfall events associated with water vapor changes. The rain gauge network of the INVC can represent the impacts of the Yarlung Zsangbo Grand Canyon (YGC) topography on precipitation at the hourly scale. The microphysical characteristics of the precipitation in the YGC are different than those in the lowland area. The GPM-IMERG (Integrated Multi-satellitE Retrievals for Global Precipitation Measurement) satellite precipitation data for the YGC region should be calibrated before they are used. The meridional water vapor flux through the YGC is more important than the zonal flux for the precipitation over the southeastern TP. The decreased precipitation around the YGC region is partly due to the decreased meridional water vapor flux passing through the YGC. High-resolution numerical models can benefit precipitation forecasting in this region by using a combination of specific schemes that capture the valley wind and water vapor flux along the valley floor.摘要第二次青藏高原科学考察研究在青藏高原东南部组建了雅鲁藏布大峡谷水汽通道科学考察分队, 本文主要总结了该科考分队近几年开展的观测研究以及利用该分队建立的观测网收集的观测数据所取得的科学成果, 重点介绍了与大峡谷水汽输送相关的强降雨过程的研究进展; 研究主要发现科考分队在大峡谷建立的雨量筒观测网可以代表该地区地形对小时降水量的空间影响; 藏东南降水的微物理特征与低海拔地区有明显差异; GPM卫星降水数据在大峡谷地区存在干偏差的问题, 使用前需进行校准; 穿越大峡谷的经向水汽输送对青藏高原东南部的降水有重要影响, 大峡谷周边区域降水量的减少可能是由于穿越大峡谷经向水汽通量的减少造成; 使用特定云降水方案的高分辨率数值模型可以较好的捕捉大峡谷内的风场和水汽输送时, 该模型能对该地区夜间强降水做出准确预报.