Global Monitoring Program Research Articles

Monoc programme: Scientific substantiation of the integrated global ocean ecological monitoring system

Man's exploitation of the World Ocean continues to increase both productively, i.e., utilization of fisheries and natural resources, and counterproductively, i.e., increased pollutant loading. This paper presents a scientific rationale for a global ecological monitoring programme which will address open as well as coastal waters.

Bioaccumulation of metals by bivalves from the Limski Kanal (North Adriatic Sea) III. Copper distribution between Mytilus Galloprovincialis (LMK.) and ambient water

The distribution of copper between different body parts of the mussels is correlated with the concentrations of the different physico-chemical forms of copper in the ambient seawater. Free and labile complexes of dissolved Cu were electrochemically determined in a sample at a natural pH of ∼8, “total” dissolved Cu was determined in acidified samples (pH 2), and Cu after acid decomposition of the suspended particulate matter was collected on 0.45 μm Millipore filters. The copper content correlates with the weight of the organs and with enhanced gametogenetic activity in the mussels. The copper concentrations in the total soft part and in the various organs are highly correlated with the dissolved “ionic” copper content of the ambient water. The particulate matter in the water column influences copper accumulation and its distribution within organs of the mussel. This conclusion arises because the concentration of copper in the mussels is highly correlated with the quantity of particulate material. The copper concentration varies very significantly with condition factors of the foot. Therefore, as the foot can be easily dissected, we propose this organ as a “sentinel” part of the mussel's body for “mussel watch”, in the global monitoring program for copper surveillance.

Calibration of Nondispersive Infrared CO2Analyzers with CO2-in-Air Reference Gases

A set of eight CO2-in-air secondary standard calibration gases has been established by NOAA/Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change (GMCC) for use in its global CO2 monitoring program. Use of these gases obviates the need for pressure broadening corrections that arises when CO2 air sample analyses are performed with nondispersive infrared analyzers using CO2-in-N2 calibration gases. The gases are composed of clean mountain air, with suitably adjusted CO2 content, pumped into 49 1 chrome-molybdenum steel tanks to 150 atm pressure. Five of the tank gases have been calibrated manometrically at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO) to an accuracy of about ±0.10 parts per million (ppm). Calibration of the remaining gases is traceable to manometric primary standards maintained at SIO. The secondary standards are used periodically in Boulder, Colorado, to calibrate tertiary CO2 standards with which, in turn, field station standards and working reference gases are calibrated. Both the tertiary standards and the field station gases are commercially available CO2-in-synthetic-air gases which contain natural proportions of nitrogen, oxygen and argon. Calibrations by SIO since 1978 suggest that the CO2 of NOAA/GMCC secondary standard gases may be drifting at a rate of 0.05.ppm yr−1. Several CO2-in-air tanks used in Boulder for CO2 flask air sample analyses have exhibited drifts of up to 0.39 ppm yr−1. The CO2-in-synthelic-air reference gases appear to be more stable, generally exhibiting CO2 concentration drift rates of from 0 to 0.10 ppm yr−1.

Drug-resistant malaria—Occurrence, control and surveillance: Wernsdorfer WH, Kouznetsov RL. Bull WHO 1980; 58: 341–352

Chloroquine resistant strains of Plasmodium falciparum were initially reported during the early 1960s and are currently found in many areas of Asia and South America. The prevalence and degree of resistance are increasing in all affected areas, representing a serious setback to antimalaria programs. Alternative drugs are much more expensive and frequently more cumbersome to use. Consequently, it is essential that a concerted effort be made to arrest the spread of resistant strains by developing standardized national policies on drug use. The probable genetics and epidemiology of drug resistance are considered in this report, and attention is directed to the problems involved in its control. Antimalarial drugs interfere with important physiological functions of the parasites. Chloroquine and mepacrine apparently block acid proteases and peptidases in the phagosomes of intraerythrocytic parasites. Circumstantial evidence from "in vitro" tests suggests that strains of P. falciparum from various parts of the world, although primarily susceptible to chloroquine, exhibit, "a priori," different sensitivities. P. falciparum in the Sobat valley of Ethiopia and in central Sudan appears to be significantly less susceptible to chloroquine than the Uganda I strain. There are no indications yet of chloroquine resistance in P. vivax, P. malariae, or P. ovale. The relative prevalence of chloroquine resistant infections and the degree of resistance are still on the increase in all affected areas. The development of drug resistance in areas with previously susceptible parasites has thus far always been associated with the use of the particular medicaments. 4 main factors seem to be involved: the degree of drug pressure; the degree of host/parasite contact; the duration of drug pressure; and the type of drug used. The occurrence of chloroquine resistant falciparum malaria requires the urgent attention of the health authorities and that several operational measures be undertaken. Instructions must be provided concerning the principles of drug use in antimalaria programs in the event of the spread of drug resistance, and these instructions are reviewed. The methods for the monitoring of drug sensitivity are also reviewed. The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed global monitoring program, initially implemented in 1977 in the Southeast Asia Region. Program objectives are identified.

The WHO/UNEP Pilot Project on Assessment of Human Exposure to Pollutants through Biological Monitoring

The objectives, development and current status of the WHO/UNEP Pilot Project on Assessment of Human Exposure to Pollutants through Biological Monitoring are described. The project is being carried out within the framework of UNEP's Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS) and is supported by funds from UNEP. The long-term objective is to develop and strengthen national, regional and global biological monitoring programmes that will make it possible to accurately assess human exposure to selected toxic pollutants by measuring their concentrations in human tissues and body fluids. In this pilot project the levels of lead and cadmium in venous blood, cadmium in kidney cortex and certain organochlorine compounds in breast milk are being determined in selected population groups in 10-12 countries in different parts of the world. Each participating laboratory has been required to achieve satisfactory results in the quality assurance phase of the project before starting to analyse the human samples and quality assurance has been continued during the monitoring phase. The project started in 1978 and is scheduled for completion by July 1982.

Measurements of the earth radiation budget from satellites during the first garp global experiment

Two special measurements of the energy exchange between earth and space were made in connection with the FGGE. A global monitoring program using wide-field-of-view and scanner detectors from NASA's NIMBUS-7 satellite successfully returned measurements during the entire FGGE. This experiment system also used a black cavity detector to measure the total energy output of the sun to very high precision. A second set of high frequency time and space estimates of the radiation budget were determined from selected geostationary satellite data. Preliminary results from both radiation budget data sets and the solar “constant” measurements will be presented.

Biological variables, especially skeletal deformities in fish, for monitoring marine pollution.

When considering principles for selection of indicators, i.e. biological variables, for monitoring marine pollution, it must be regarded as important to search for effects on the highest possible level of organization. For a global monitoring programme there are, however, many practical limitations in the number of useful indicators. The paper suggests skeletal deformities in fish as one possible indicator for this purpose in the future and gives a review on the occurrence, effects, causative factors and possible mechanisms of skeletal deformities in fish.

Bioaccumulation factors of chlorinated hydrocarbons between mussels and seawater

The bioaccumulation of PCB and DDT compounds by mussels, Mytilus spp., from ambient seawater was determined by measuring concentrations of these chlorinated hydrocarbons in both mussels and seawater at four sites on the Mediterranean coast of France and two sites in California. Bioaccumulation factors were found to vary over an order of magnitude. Ratios of the concentrations of PCB in mussels, consisting predominantly of pentachloro-and hexachlorobiphenyls, to concentrations in ambient seawater ranged between 69 000 and 690 000; the corresponding ratios of concentrations of p, p′-DDE or p, p′-DDT ranged from 40 000 to 690 000. Although mussels appear to be appropriate and convenient indicator organisms of local chlorinated hydrocarbon contamination levels, the factors contributing to this variance must be determined before mussels are widely used in global monitoring programmes.

Global air pollution and climatic change

This report reviews the findings on pollutant emissions, removal processes, and pollutant concentrations, as well as some aspects of climatic change. It is shown that emissions from agricultural burning in the tropics exceed significantly U.S. annual emission rates. The direct anthropogenic global particle production amounts to about 7% of that naturally produced. More than 70% of the man‐made particles are in the form of gaseous precursors. The anthropogenic contribution to the total global particle production is about 15%. Natural emissions of particulates and CO, CO2, CH4, H2S, NO2, and NH3 exceed man‐made emissions by orders of magnitude. Only SO2 is produced predominantly by human activities. Emission estimates, especially those of CO, CO2, CH4, NH3, and N2O, differ greatly among the different investigators. The major removal processes of particulate and gaseous pollutants in the troposphere and stratosphere are reviewed. Trends and current levels of particulate and gaseous pollutants for urban and background stations are discussed. The tropospheric and stratospheric global monitoring programs are outlined. The discussion of changes in the upper atmosphere centers around stratospheric aerosols CO2, CO, CH4, H2O, and O3. The relative effects of nuclear tests, SST flights, and propellants and refrigerants are discussed. Recent hypotheses of ozone destruction by chlorofluoromethanes and bromines are presented. Next evidence of climatic change is given. Natural and man‐made external causes of climatic change, including fluctuations in solar emission, orbital changes, changes in CO2, dust, and land use, and internal causes of climatic change, which include Antarctic ice surges, decreases in ocean salinity, and almost intransitivity, are discussed. All these factors are interrelated via complicated feedback mechanisms. Hypotheses concerning the physical causes, the time scales, and the initial stages of ice ages are reviewed. It appears that major ice ages seem to occur every 100,000 yr and that after an interglacial interlude we are on the brink of a period of colder climate. It has been estimated that the mean temperature of the planetary atmosphere in its surface layers has decreased by about 0.3°C since the 1940's despite an 11% increase of CO2 above the nineteenth century preindustrial level of 290 ppm. It appears that the natural climatic cooling trend is roughly 3 times more powerful than the present influence of CO2. However, in the near future, far‐reaching adverse climatic and ecological consequences can be expected because the CO2 increase is too rapid for the regulatory mechanisms of the oceans. The impact of an increasing aerosol loading cannot be assessed reliably yet. The net effect will probably be small or one of warming. Presently, the heat release of the order of 15–20 TW from global energy production is still relatively small. But with the continuation of the present energy growth rate, within one generation, waste heat production may reach 100–300 TW, an amount found sufficient in natural processes to cause climatic changes. Some problems related to land use changes are also discussed, especially overgrazing, which may lead to desertification, and tropical deforestation, which may alter the atmospheric circulation.

International approach to the marine pollution problem

Attempts at international control of marine pollution commenced as early as 1926 in a proposal to limit oil pollution in the sea by a convention which failed to be ratified. The first successful Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil was adopted in 1954 and amended in 1962. An attempt will be made to expand the terms of this Convention at a Conference on Marine Pollution to be convened by the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization in October 1973. It is planned to include other noxious substances than oil carried by ships, as well as ship-generated garbage and sewage. The Convention on the Dumping of Wastes at Sea, adopted in London on November 13, 1972, will be responsible for the control of marine pollution arising from dumping wastes at sea, where certain substances are prohibited from being dumped and others can only be dumped under close supervision. The International Law of the Sea Conference to be convened in Santiago, Chile, during April 1974, will attempt to introduce international control over other forms of marine pollution by legislative action. There are various inter-governmental bodies dealing with the scientific aspects of marine pollution, including the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Food and Agricultural Organization and the World Meteorological Organization. These bodies, along with others, formed the IMCO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/UN Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution, which met for the first time in March 1969, and annually since then, to deal with scientific matters pertaining to marine pollution. The International Coordination Group on the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment of the IOC met for the first time in April 1973 to coordinate a global approach to studying the marine pollution problem. Under the Integrated Global Ocean Station System, a pilot project, to monitor oil pollution in the North Atlantic and contiguous seas, has been initiated. There are a number of regional programs which might be incorporated into a global monitoring program, such as the North Sea and Baltic projects, coordinated under the International Council for Exploration of the Sea. National programs under the International Decade of Ocean Exploration will also be candidates for inclusion in global pollution studies. In addition, a number of non-governmental bodies such as the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research and Scientific Committee on Problems of Environment of the International Council of Scientific Unions are addressing themselves to scientific issues of marine pollution. The solution of global problems of marine pollution can only be achieved through international legislative action combined with strong backing by scientific research and monitoring. Many national programs will have to be coordinated by an international mechanism probably under the aegis of IOC. In the final analysis, the problem of global pollution can only be solved by cooperation of states with control of pollution nationally first and then internationally second.

Global monitoring programs in perspective

Ten years ago we completed the International Geophysical Year. It was a magnificent effort of worldwide geophysical observations, marked by the emergence of the first satellites. The IGY was also a landmark in organization. Under the leadership of Sydney Chapman, Lloyd Berkner, Joseph Kaplan and Marcel Nicolet, the IGY became a model in international cooperation for other programs that followed.