Global Environmental Burden Research Articles

E-waste in the environment: Unveiling the sources, carcinogenic links, and sustainable management strategies

E-waste refers to electrical and electronic equipment discarded without the intent of reuse by choice or at the end of its functional lifespan. In 2022, approximately 62 billion kilograms of e-waste, equivalent to 7.8 kilograms per capita, was generated globally. With an alarming annual growth of approximately 2 million metric tonnes, e-waste production may exceed 82 billion kilograms by 2030. Improper disposal of e-waste can be detrimental to human health and the entire biosphere. E-waste encompasses a wide range of chemicals, including heavy metals, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS), Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), Polychlorinated Dibenzo-dioxins and -furans (PCDD/Fs), Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs), and radioactive elements. Improper disposal of e-waste equipment can directly contaminate the aquatic and terrestrial environment, leading to human exposure through ingestion, inhalation, dermal absorption, and trans-placental transfer. These contaminants can directly enter the human body from the environment, potentially fueling carcinogenesis by modulating cell cycle proteins, inducing oxidative stress, and mutations. Heavy metals such as cadmium, mercury, arsenic, lead, chromium, and nickel along with organic pollutants like PAHs, PCBs, PBDEs, PFAS, and radioactive elements, play a crucial role in inducing malignancy in humans. Effective collection, sorting, proper recycling, and appropriate disposal techniques are essential in reducing environmental contamination by e-waste-derived chemicals. Hence, this comprehensive review aims to uncover the global environmental burden of e-waste and its links to carcinogenesis in humans. Furthermore, it provides an inclusive discussion on potential treatment approaches to minimize environmental e-waste contamination.

Polyurethane-Degrading Potential of Alkaline Groundwater Bacteria.

Plastic waste is a global environmental burden and long-lasting plastic polymers, including ubiquitous and toxic polyurethanes (PUs), rapidly accumulate in the water environments. In this study, samples were collected from the three alkaline groundwater occurrences in the geotectonic regions of the Pannonian basin of northern Serbia (Torda and Slankamen Banja) and Inner Dinarides of western Serbia (Mokra Gora) with aim to isolate and identify bacteria with plastic- and lignocellulose-degrading potential, that could be applied to reduce the burden of environmental plastic pollution. The investigated occurrences belong to cold, mildly alkaline (pH: 7.6-7.9) brackish and hyperalkaline (pH: 11.5) fresh groundwaters of the SO4 - Na + K, Cl - Na + K and OH, Cl - Ca, Na + K genetic type. Full-length 16S rDNA sequencing, using Oxford Nanopore sequencing device, was performed with DNA extracted from colonies obtained by cultivation of all groundwater samples, as well as with DNA extracted directly from one groundwater sample. The most abundant genera belong to Pseudomonas, Acidovorax, Kocuria and Methylotenera. All screened isolates (100%) had the ability to grow on at least 3 of the tested plastic and lignocellulosic substrates, with 53.9% isolates degrading plastic substrate Impranil® DLN-SD (SD), a model compound for PUs degradation. Isolates degrading SD that were identified by partial 16S rDNA sequencing belong to the Stenotrophomonas, Pseudomonas, Paraburkholderia, Aeromonas, Vibrio and Acidovorax genera. Taking into account that plastics, including commonly produced PUs, are widespread in groundwater, identification of PUs-degrading bacteria may have potential applications in bioremediation of groundwater polluted with this polymer.

Potential Energy and Environmental Footprint Savings from Reducing Food Loss and Waste in Europe: A Scenario-Based Multiregional Input-Output Analysis.

Food loss and waste (FLW) contribute significantly to the global food system's economic and environmental burdens, including substantial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, resource depletion, and waste management challenges. In alignment with the European Commission's sustainability objectives and U.N. Sustainable Development Goal 12.3, this study explores the potential energy and environmental footprint savings achievable by halving FLW in Europe by 2030. Using a multiregional input-output model, we estimated the total global energy and environmental footprint savings across all stages of the food supply chain, considering industry-specific FLW rates and proportion weights. The findings reveal substantial environmental savings across Europe, with aggregate savings potentially reaching 51 Mt CO2e (0.09 t CO2e/p), 4,620 Mm3 (8 m3/p) of blue water, 106,446 km2 (179 m2/p) of cropland, 55,523 km2 (93 m2/p) of grassland, and 0.47 EJ (0.54 TJ/p) of energy. The greatest potential for savings was found in Western Europe, specifically in France, Germany, Belgium, and The Netherlands. However, countries with a lower per capita GDP, such as Greece, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Romania, also demonstrate significant per capita savings potential, indicating that wealth does not necessarily correlate with higher environmental savings. Agricultural production emerged as the stage with the highest footprint reduction potential for GHG and resource footprints across Europe, while the foodservice and institutional stages offer the greatest energy-saving potential. Geographical disparities underscore the need for region-specific policies. These results challenge the wealth-sustainability correlation and advocate for adaptable policies that transcend national wealth and accommodate regional disparities, underlining the pivotal roles of the agricultural production and consumption stages in footprint savings.

Biochar supported metallo-inorganic nanocomposite: A green approach for decontamination of heavy metals from water.

Heavy metal contamination of water has become a global environmental burden, which has stirred up agitation worldwide. Fabrication of adsorbents utilizing either low cost, environment friendly materials or waste products can be helpful in remediating environmental pollution. The current study evolved around the synthesis of nanocomposites derived from such raw precursors like spent tea waste biochar, hydroxyapatite, and clays. In this context, two nanocomposites, namely manganese ferrite doped hydroxyapatite/kaolinite/biochar (TK-NC) and manganese ferrite doped hydroxyapatite/vermiculite/biochar (TV-NC), were synthesized followed by their employment for decontamination of heavy metals from aqueous media. TK-NC and TV-NC exhibited the crystallite sizes in the range of 2.55-5.94 nm as obtained by Debye Scherrer Equation and Williamsons-Hall equation The fabricated nanocomposites were characterized using FT-IR, SEM-EDX, and powder XRD. Batch adsorption studies were performed, and influence of different adsorption parameters (contact time, reaction temperature, solution pH, adsorbent dose, and initial adsorbate concentration) on metal adsorption was examined. Thermodynamic studies revealed that the adsorption of Cr(VI), Ni(II) and Cu(II) on TK-NC and TV-NC was endothermic (+ΔH°) and indicates disorderness (+ΔS°) at the solid-liquid interface owing to the strong affinity of metal ions with adsorbent. The heavy metal uptake selectivity followed the following decreasing order; Cr(VI) > Cu(II) > Ni(II) by both nanocomposites, with adsorption capacities falling in the range of 204.68-343.05 mg g-1. Several adsorption kinetic and isotherm models were applied to experimentally calculated data, which suggest favorable adsorption of Cr(VI), Ni(II) and Cu(II) by TK-NC and TV-NC from the system while obeying general-order kinetics and R-P adsorption model, conferring the transition in adsorption kinetics order and involvement of multiple adsorption process.

Taking stock of the share of global environmental burden of knitwear production in Bangladesh: Constructing the life cycle inventory

The textile industry significantly contributes to global environmental deterioration. Bangladesh, as a top knitwear exporter also plays a part in this degradation. Globally, there is a lack of readily available life cycle inventory (LCI) data that could be utilized to make decisions for minimizing environmental impact from this sector. Our endeavor is an attempt to address this lacuna. The study adopts a life cycle approach to evaluate the environmental impacts as well as the water footprint of the Bangladeshi textile industry with a particular focus on knitwear through rigorous field surveys and expert interviews. The assessment for both environmental impact and water footprint singled out fiber production to be responsible for most environmental externalities. The study also calculated the environmental impact of using alternative fiber such as organic cotton, recycled polyester, and recycled cotton and compared it to the existing practice of knitwear production; results of which indicate that employing alternative fiber was not only less damaging to the environment but also was economically more beneficial. Furthermore, the study analyzes three decades of revenue and emission data to project greenhouse gas (GHG) emission probability of the textile industry till 2030 for both business-as-usual scenario and alternative practices (alternative fiber composition). The projection shows that adopting alternative practices can decrease the GHG emission potential of current practices by 32%–82%. Additionally, the study provides an exhaustive LCI for knitwear production which can be used for further development of sustainable solutions and practices of the global textile industry.

Utilisation of Plastic Waste as Synthetic Fiber and Aggregate in Concrete –A Review

Plastic waste materials are non-biodegradable and therefore require safe and economic disposal to have a green environment. The use of plastic waste in the construction industry holds a big potential in minimizing the global environmental burden. For this purpose a comprehensive review of published research works was done which disclosed the use of plastic waste materials like polypropylene (PP), high-density polypropylene (HDPE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) in concrete as partial or full replacements for cement and aggregates. This paper reviewed various properties like workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, temperature effect, elastic modulus, drying shrinkage, carbonation and structural behavior of concrete with stated plastic waste materials. The review revealed that the strength, durability and structural characteristics of such concrete improved while the workability was reduced. The review gave information that the footpath panels with HDPE, PP and PET fibre can be used as a substitute for steel-reinforced panels. The review also indicated that further detailed investigations on various strength and durability properties are required on concrete made using plastic wastes like HDPE, PP and PET with various aspect ratios.

Global food crop redistribution reduces water footprint without compromising species diversity

Food crop yield and species diversity are critical for global population growth, undernourishment, and environmental burden. Crop redistribution is a practical solution to the sustainable intensification of agricultural systems by replacing existing crops with more suitable ones. Here we test this redistribution theory and its impacts on species diversity using six decades of data on the annual world production of 137 food crop products and their average water footprint (WFP). We find the global food crop effective species diversity had an increasing trend from 21 to 27 in recent six decades. Then, we develop a nutrient water footprint productivity index (WFPPI) to optimize crop distribution. Large calorie (+14%), mineral (+25%), and vitamin (+26%) production increases are possible from reshaping the global distribution of 100 crops within the current total WFP and area harvested. Wheat and paddy rice area can reduce by 31% and 34%, respectively, while increasing maize and soybean area by 18% and 40%, respectively. The global redistribution could feed an additional 866 million people while supplying 37% more than the caloric demand for the projected biofuel growth between 2020 and 2030 in the Net Zero Scenario. Such an optimization process does not entail a loss of crop species diversity. With a change of no more than 5%, the stability of the total area harvested for the four largest crops (wheat, maize, paddy rice, and soybeans) is critical for both production and species diversity of all crops. Our results suggest that global crop redistribution provides a promising solution to sustainable production.

Sustainability Assessment in Manufacturing for Effectiveness: Challenges and Opportunities

Manufacturing organizations continuously improve their energy, environmental, and economic performance at different manufacturing levels (products, processes, enterprise, etc.) using various assessment methodologies for visibility and a competitive market edge. Sustainability assessment has become the focus of the manufacturing performance measurement in the last decade and has triggered numerous methodological developments and adoption in practice. The assessment focus has broadened from process to enterprise-level, single to multiple parameters, fragmented to a holistic point of view, and local businesses to global sustainability and circularity. Increasing global environmental burden, resource scarcity, and human health challenges urge a shift toward effective assessment practices. This article critically reviews sustainability assessment practices in manufacturing from a methodological efficiency-effectiveness perspective. A clear distinction between efficiency and effectiveness practices has been discussed. The requirements and research challenges for effectiveness in the sustainability assessment practice in theory (academia) and practice (industry) is presented.

Surface structure regulation of wastewater flocculated sludge for hierarchical superhydrophobic ceramic coating

Numerous wastewater flocculated sludge (WFS) is a global problem due to the considerable global environmental and public health burden, but sustainable and effective strategies for the resource utilization of WFS are still insufficient. Here, a facile and sustainable strategy was developed to regulate the surface structure of WFS for the fabrication of superhydrophobic ceramic coating. The structural transformation from the amorphous structure of WFS to hierarchical porous micro/nanocomposite structures was realized. Moreover, the designed ceramic coating maintained excellent superhydrophobic and self-cleaning properties over the entire pH range (1−14) or when applied to four different substrates. This work not only provides a new procedure for effective management of WFS and facile fabrication of superhydrophobic ceramic coating with excellent acid- and alkali-resistance and substrate-independent property, but also has potential applications in separation, catalysis and construction.

Mushrooms on the plate: Trends towards NAFLD treatment, health improvement and sustainable diets.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a most important cause of liver disease. Similar to other non-communicable diseases (NCD), such as obesity and type II diabetes mellitus, NAFLD can strongly affected by diet. Diet-related NCD and malnutrition are rising in all regions being a major cause of the global health, economic and environmental burdens. Mushrooms, important dietary components since the hunter-gathering communities, have increasingly gained momentum in biomedical research and therapeutics due to their interplay in metabolism traits. We emphasize here the beneficial effects of mushroom-enriched diets on the homeostasis of lipid and sugar metabolism, including their modulation, but also interfering with insulin metabolism, gut microbiota, inflammation, oxidative stress and autophagy. In this review, we describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms at the gut-liver axis and the liver-white adipose tissue (WAT) axis, that plausibly cause such positive modulation, and discuss the potential of mushroom-enriched diets to prevent or ameliorate NAFLD and related NCD, also within the shift needed towards healthy sustainable diets.

Defining a procedure to identify key sustainability indicators in Spanish urban systems: Development and application

Urban population has exponentially growth in the last decades and as consequence, cities concentrate part of global environmental burdens among other impacts. Therefore, the use of indicators to evaluate the cities in order to achieve their better and more sustainable future was receiving special attention in the last years. Accordingly, the considered indicators would reflect the traditional three pillars of sustainability: social, economic and environmental. In the present study, Classification And Regression Trees (CART) and Random Forest, were applied over a case study in which the sustainability of 31 Spanish cities was evaluated considering 38 indicators. The main goals were to identify the key indicators and to quantify the corresponding thresholds to define a sustainable city. The key indicators identified were: “woman unemployed rate”, “city unemployment rate” and “Municipal Solid Waste collected” and the corresponding thresholds are 14 %, 16 % and 423 kg inhabitant-1 year-1 respectively. In addition, the sustainability of 32 different Spanish cities was evaluated with these three indicators and thresholds to validate the achievements. According with the results, urban sustainability could be evaluated considering only three indicators with a high degree of accuracy, providing information to policy makers without the requirement of compiling a large amount of data.

Resource pressure – A circular design method

Extraction, processing and final disposal of primary resources is responsible for a major share of global environmental burdens, many of which are already beyond safe limits today. Design is pivotal for defining the quality and quantity of resources that are required as an input to produce a product (or service) as well as the generated output by it’s use and final disposal. In order to improve the environmental performance of our society, it is therefore essential to provide adequate design guidance. To this end, we present in this paper the resource pressure method allowing to reduce the pressure on primary resources, and therewith on planet Earth, through circular strategies. This resource pressure is calculated out of six design parameters: mass in product, product lifetime, manufacturing losses, primary material content, recyclability and cascadability. The method enables a straightforward quantitative assessment of design decisions and offers clear guidance during the design phase. We further derive qualitative guidelines with the objective to provide direction during design conception. A first application on a heat exchanger illustrates the advantages as well as the further development potential of the method. In comparison to the results from a life cycle assessment study of this case study, it could be seen that the resource pressure method guides towards reducing the overall environmental impacts.

Ecological resource availability: a method to estimate resource budgets for a sustainable economy

Non-technical summary Resources are the basis of our economy and their provision causes major shares of the global environmental burdens, many of which are beyond safe limits today. In order to be sustainable, our economy needs to be able to operate within those boundaries. As resources are the physical ‘currency’ of our economy, we present a method that allows translating Earth system boundaries into resource budgets. This ecological resource availability determines the global annual production of a resource that can be considered absolutely sustainable. The budgets can be managed like financial budgets, bringing absolute environmental limits one step closer to decision-makers.

Diversification not specialization reduces global and local environmental burdens from livestock production

Milk and beef production generates environmental burdens globally and locally. Across many regions a typical dairy intensification pathway is for dairy farms to specialize on milk production and reduce the co-production of beef (i.e. ‘dairy-beef’). Dairy-beef thus reduces and beef needs to be produced elsewhere if beef production is to be maintained. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies quantifying the environmental implications of dairy and beef production have largely focused on the farm level and not captured system connections. Further LCA work has generally represented the ‘average’ farm of a region, consequently ignoring the range in farm management observed in practice and few studies consider a range of LCA environmental footprints other than carbon footprints. For the first time, we present comprehensive LCA results for multiple environmental burdens based on a large panel dataset for commercial dairy and suckler-beef farms. We present a 15-year LCA assessment of a total of 738 dairy (3624 data points in 15 years) and 1887 suckler-beef (10,340 data points in 15 years) UK farms for five major LCA footprints. We also explore the footprint implications of compensating for reduced dairy-beef through producing this ‘displaced’ beef on suckler-beef farms. We found a substantial variation in farm footprints not captured in ‘average farm’ studies. Dairy-beef was much more efficient than beef produced on suckler-beef farms in terms of footprints per unit of beef output. Reducing dairy-beef and replacing it on a suckler-beef farm generally significantly increased environmental burdens. A reduction in carbon footprint was also associated with a reduction in other burdens suggesting no trade-off between local and global emissions. Increasing dairy farm diversification via higher dairy-beef output per unit of milk reduced burdens by up to 11–56%, on average, depending on burden and sensitivity run. We conclude that overspecialization of dairy farms in milk production increases the combined burdens from beef and milk, and that more intensive beef systems that make more efficient use of forage land play a crucial role in mitigating these burdens.

Access to environmental health assets across wealth strata: Evidence from 41 low- and middle-income countries.

IntroductionLow levels of household access to basic environmental health assets (EHAs)–including technologies such as clean cookstoves and bed nets or infrastructure such as piped water and electricity–in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) are known to contribute significantly to the global burden of disease. This low access persists despite decades of promotion of many low-cost, life-saving technologies, and is particularly pronounced among poor households. This study aims to characterize variation in access to EHAs among LMIC households as a function of wealth, as defined by ownership of various assets.MethodsDemographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 41 low- and middle-income countries were used to assess household-level access to the following EHAs: 1) improved water supply; 2) piped water supply; 3) improved sanitation; 4) modern cooking fuels; 5) electricity; and 6) bed nets. For comparison, we included access to mobile phones, which is considered a highly successful technology in terms of its penetration into poor households within LMICs. Ownership levels were compared across country-specific wealth quintiles constructed from household assets using bivariate analysis and multivariable linear regression models.ResultsAccess to EHAs was low among the households in the bottom three quintiles of wealth. Access to piped water, modern cooking fuels, electricity and improved sanitation, for example, were all below 50% for households in the bottom three wealth quintiles. Access to certain EHAs such as improved water supply and bed nets increased only slowly with concomitant increases in wealth, while gaps in access to other EHAs varied to a greater degree by wealth quintile. For example, disparities in access between the richest and poorest quintiles were greatest for electricity and improved sanitation. Rural households in all wealth quintiles had much lower levels of access to EHAs, except for bed nets, relative to urban households.ConclusionsThe findings of this study provide a basis for understanding how EHAs are distributed among poor households in LMICs, elucidate where inequalities in access are particularly pronounced, and point to a need for strategies that better reach the poor, if the global environmental burden of disease is to be reduced.

Environmental responsibility in hospital care: Findings from a qualitative study

Objective: To identify the key elements of environmental responsibility in hospital care and the stakeholders involved.Background: Hospital care causes a significant global environmental burden, which threatens human health and wellbeing. Environmental responsibility has been identified as an essential part of patient care with regard to health promotion and wellbeing of humans, but it has often been regarded as a secondary issue in hospitals. In addition, the lack of organizational structures and administrative as well as managerial support inhibit the promotion of environmental responsibility in hospitals.Methods: We used a qualitative study with semi-structured interviews and document analysis. Our data was drawn from the environmental managers of five Finnish university hospitals and documents on their environmental programs.Results: We found that the aim of environmental responsibility in hospital care was to avoid unnecessary emissions, and that it was guided by the authorities and by ethical values. It included targets for sustainable use of material, electricity, water and transport. Environmental responsibility required the involvement of several stakeholders, including administrators, environmental manager, immediate leaders, environmental support people, staff and patients. Implementation of environmental responsibility was promoted by collaboration, education, diverse initiatives to motivate staff, and continuously developing practices.Conclusions: Environmental responsibility extended throughout a hospital organization. Staff was in a key position to implement it, but they needed versatile organizational support, including education, clear procedures, defined roles, and a motivational culture and facilities.Implications for hospital management: This study yields new knowledge that will provide information for the development of organisational structures with respect to environmental responsibility in hospital care.

Transient and Flexible Photodetectors

With the rapid development of technology, electronic devices have become omnipresent in our daily life as they have brought much convenience in every aspect of human activity. Side-by-side, electronic waste (e-waste) has become a global environmental burden creating an ever-growing ecological problem. The transient device technology in which the devices can physically disappear completely in different environmental conditions has attracted widespread attention in recent years owing to its emerging application potential spanning from biomedical to military use. In this work, we demonstrated the first attempt for a dissolvable ecofriendly flexible photodetector using a hybrid of graphene and chlorophyll on a poly(vinyl alcohol) substrate. The whole device can physically disappear in aqueous solutions in a time span of ∼30 min, while it shows a photoresponsivity of ∼200 A W–1 under ambient conditions. The high carrier mobility of graphene and strong absorption strength of a green photon harvesting layer, chl...

Life Cycle Assessment of pig production: A case study in Galicia

The environmental assessment of a pig farming system from a cradle-to-farm gate perspective was carried out in this study. To do so, two separated farms destined to the weaning and fattening of pigs were analysed in Galicia (Northwest Spain). The standard framework of the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) was followed to assess the environmental performance of the global process. Six impact categories were selected, including climate change (CC), terrestrial acidification (TA), freshwater eutrophication (FE), marine eutrophication (ME), agricultural land occupation (ALO) and fossil depletion (FD). The edible protein energy return on investment ratio (ep-EROI) was also considered. The fattening farm related activities were the main contributor to the global environmental burdens in almost all impact categories, with contributions higher than 72%. Both concentrate feed production and on-farm emissions were detected as the principal hotspots, mainly due to the burdens associated with concentrate feed ingredients production as well as those derived from the manure management process, respectively. The characterisation results in terms of CC (3.4 kg CO2 eq), FD (12.5 MJ) and ALO (5.0 m2 yr) were consistent with similar European LCA studies on pigmeat production while uncertainty in LCA choices was the main responsible of minor variability on TA, FE and ME. The ep-EROI value (7.3%) was also in line with published data. Due to the relevance of concentrate feed production on the global environmental profile, several feeding strategies were proposed as potential environmental improvements, of which the introduction of local ingredients seemed the most promising alternative.

Depth Profiles of Persistent Organic Pollutants in the North and Tropical Atlantic Ocean.

Little is known of the distribution of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the deep ocean. Polyethylene passive samplers were used to detect the vertical distribution of truly dissolved POPs at two sites in the Atlantic Ocean. Samplers were deployed at five depths covering 26-2535 m in the northern Atlantic and Tropical Atlantic, in approximately one year deployments. Samplers of different thickness were used to determine the state of equilibrium POPs reached in the passive samplers. Concentrations of POPs detected in the North Atlantic near the surface (e.g., sum of 14 polychlorinated biphenyls, PCBs: 0.84 pg L(-1)) were similar to previous measurements. At both sites, PCB concentrations showed subsurface maxima (tropical Atlantic Ocean -800 m, North Atlantic -500 m). Currents seemed more important in moving POPs to deeper water masses than the biological pump. The ratio of PCB concentrations in near surface waters (excluding PCB-28) between the two sites was inversely correlated with congeners' subcooled liquid vapor pressure, in support of the latitudinal fractionation. The results presented here implied a significant amount of HCB is stored in the Atlantic Ocean (4.8-26% of the global HCB environmental burdens), contrasting traditional beliefs that POPs do not reach the deep ocean.

Carbon and water footprint of pork supply chain in Catalonia: From feed to final products

A systematic tool to assess the Carbon Footprint (CF) and Water Footprint (WF) of pork production companies was developed and applied to representative Catalan companies. To do so, a cradle-to-gate environmental assessment was carried out by means of the LCA methodology, taking into account all the stages involved in the pork chain, from feed production to the processing of final products, ready for distribution. In this approach, the environmental results are reported based on eight different functional units (FUs) according to the main pork products obtained. With the aim of ensuring the reliability of the results and facilitating the comparison with other available reports, the Product Category Rules (PCR) for Catalan pork sector were also defined as a basis for calculations. The characterization results show fodder production as the main contributor to the global environmental burdens, with contributions higher than 76% regardless the environmental indicator or the life cycle stage considered, which is in agreement with other published data. In contrast, the results in terms of CF and WF lay above the range of values reported elsewhere. However, major discrepancies are mainly due to the differences in the co-products allocation criteria. In this sense, economic/physical allocation and/or system expansion have been mostly considered in literature. In contrast, no allocation was considered appropriate in this study, according to the characteristics of the industries and products under assessment; thus, the major impacts fall on the main product, which derives on comparatively higher environmental burdens. Finally, due to the relevance of fodder production in the overall impact assessment results, strategies to reduce greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions as well as water use associated to this stage were proposed in the pork supply chain.