Global Emotional Intelligence Research Articles

The level of emotional intelligence in undergraduate students of nursing

Abstract Aim. The theory of emotional intelligence provides a framework to think about all of the non-technical skills you need in order to be a good nurse. It’s often described as the potential to feel, use, communicate, recognize, remember, describe, identify, learn from, manage, understand, and explain emotions. The aim of the study was to determine the level of total global Emotional Intelligence among undergraduate students of nursing and also to check the influence of factors (the year of study, type of completed high school education) on Emotional Intelligence. Methods. The study involved together 86 university students of nursing (average age 21.7±1.4; 96.5% females). We used the standardized questionnaire Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire – Short Form (TEIQue-SF). Results. The results show a higher level scores achieved by nursing students in all areas EI except Self-control compared to a population norm. Students who have completed non-health’s education achieved higher level scores of Emotionality (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusions. EI abilities are essential for the profession of nursing in both educational and clinical practice. Examination of the role of education and the development of EI abilities in student nurses are needed to support this foundation of EI research.

General intelligence, emotional intelligence and academic knowledge as predictors of creativity domains: A study of gifted students

AbstractCreativity of the individual is dependent on numerous factors, such as knowledge, general intelligence and emotional intelligence. The general purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of general intelligence, emotional intelligence and academic knowledge on the emerging of domain-specific creativity. The study was conducted on 178 intellectually gifted students who attend high school. As a result of the study, correlations were determined between the scholarly creativity domains and sociability, global emotional intelligence (TEQ), science course, verbal and performance intelligence scores; mechanical/scientific creativity and mathematics and science courses, well-being and self-control; performance creativity and sociability; self/everyday creativity and science courses, well-being, self-control, sociability and global TEQ; artistic creativity and sociability, and global TEQ. Moreover, researcher used a hierarchical regression analysis to see whether independent variants predict the cre...

Emotional intelligence in non-psychotic first-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia

Subtle social cognitive deficits in unaffected relatives of schizophrenia patients have received increasing attention over the last few years, supporting their potential endophenotypic role for this disorder. The current study assessed non-psychotic first-degree relatives' performance on a multidimensional measure of emotional intelligence (EI): the Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test 2.0 (MSCEIT). Endorsed by the National Institute of Mental Health, the MSCEIT is a valid and reliable instrument for detecting emotion-processing deficits among schizophrenia patients and people high in schizotypy. Method: Thirty-seven first-degree relatives, 37 schizophrenia outpatients and 37 healthy controls completed the MSCEIT, which comprises eight subscales aimed to assess the four branches of EI: Identifying, Facilitating, Understanding and Managing Emotions. Potential associations with cognitive function and schizotypy levels, measured with the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire–Brief, were further evaluated. Results: Relatives had significantly lower MSCEIT total scores than controls and also significantly lower scores on the Identifying emotions branch. Nevertheless, schizophrenia patients still had the poorest global EI performance. The strongest positive correlations were found in relatives and controls with measures of executive function, processing speed and general intelligence. A higher level of schizotypy correlated significantly with lower MSCEIT scores among controls, but not among relatives. Conclusions: Contrary to expectations in the general population, the current study observed subtle EI impairment in non-psychotic first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. These findings support the hypothesis that these EI deficiencies may be potential endophenotypes located between the clinical phenotype and the genetic predisposition for schizophrenia.

The emotional intelligence of registered nurses commencing critical care nursing.

BackgroundCritical care is described as complex, detailed healthcare in a unique, technologically rich environment. Critical care nursing requires a strong knowledge base and exceptional clinical and technological skills to cope in this demanding environment. Many registered nurses (RNs) commencing work in these areas may lack resilience, and because of the stress of the critical care environment, coping mechanisms need to be developed. To prevent burnout and to enable critical care nurses to function holistically, emotional intelligence (EI) is essential in the development of such coping mechanisms.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to describe the EI of RNs commencing work in critical care units in a private hospital group in Gauteng, South Africa.MethodThe design used for this study was a quantitative descriptive survey. The target population were RNs commencing work in critical care units. Data were collected from RNs using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire – Short Form and analysed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software.ResultsThe sample (n = 30) had a mean age of 32 years. Most of the participants (63%) qualified through the completion of a bridging course between 2010 and 2012. The majority (62%) of the sample had less than 2 years’ experience as RNs.ConclusionThe EI of RNs commencing work in a critical care environment was indicative of a higher range of Global EI, with the well-being factor scoring the highest, followed by the emotionality factor, then self-control, with the sociability factor scoring the lowest.

An international study of emotional intelligence in first year radiography students: The relationship to age, gender and culture

Emotional intelligence (EI) is an important personality trait in healthcare professionals and students. This study aims to identify gender, age or culture differences in trait EI scores between student radiographers across four countries. The short form of the trait EI questionnaire (TEIQue-SF) was used to collect data from first year radiography students in Australia, Hong Kong, Ireland and the United Kingdom. Global EI and Sociability scores of the first year radiography students were in keeping with published norm data in terms of gender differences, however, Self-Control and Emotionality scores did not follow the gender-based norms. Statistically significant differences in Global EI (p = 0.02), Wellbeing (p = 0.002) and Sociability (p = 0.003) were found with Western versus Asian cultures being a key factor. This study highlights a number of EI findings of importance to health-related professional programmes and the potential impact of cultural background on this key personality trait.

Emotional Intelligence of Youth Accessing Residential and Day Treatment Programs: Association with Psychological and Interpersonal Difficulties

Background: Youth with emotional and behavioural problems often experience ongoing mental health challenges placing them at risk for less than optimal attainment of scholastic and occupational goals. Emotional intelligence (EI) has consistently been associated with good mental health (Martins et al.). The purpose for this study was to explore EI in a sample of youth with emotional and behavioural problems severe enough to warrant residential or day treatment. A second purpose was to explore the relationship of EI with psychological and interpersonal difficulties. Methods: Cross-sectional surveys were administered to youth accessing residential and day mental health treatment programs. Results: Thirty youth (mean age 15.30 years, SD1.64; 70% female) reported low Global EI (Total sum 123.00, SD 22.4), and interpersonal problems was strongly correlated with EI. Conclusion: Youth accessing intensive mental health services reported low emotional intelligence and problems with interpersonal relationships. Implications for focusing research and intervention efforts on fostering interpersonal social skills that may improve youths' quality of their relationships and emotional intelligence are discussed.

A multi-institutional study of the emotional intelligence of resident physicians

BackgroundAlthough emotional intelligence (EI) may have a role in the development of Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education core competencies, few studies have measured resident EI across specialties. This study aimed to describe the EI of resident physicians across multiple specialties. MethodsThree hundred twenty five surgery, pediatric, and pathology residents at 3 large academic institutions were invited to complete the psychometrically validated Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire. ResultsThe response rate was 42.8% (n = 139). Global EI of all residents (101.0 ± 8.1) was comparable with, but less variable than, the general population sample and was not statistically different between specialties. Compared with the norm sample, residents in the 3 specialty groups demonstrated unique combinations of areas of relative high and low development. ConclusionsThere exist distinct strengths and opportunities for the development for surgery, pediatrics, and pathology residents. Future investigations could use EI profiling to create educational interventions to develop specific areas of EI and assess correlation with resident performance.

Are There Gender Differences in the Emotional Intelligence of Resident Physicians?

Because academic literature indicates that emotional intelligence (EI) is tied to work performance, job satisfaction, burnout, and client satisfaction, there is great interest in understanding physician EI. To determine whether gender differences in resident EI profiles mirror EI gender differences in the general population. A total of 325 residents in 3 types of residency programs (pathology, pediatrics, and general surgery) at 3 large academic institutions were invited electronically to complete the validated Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), a tool consisting of 153 items that cluster to 15 independent facets, 4 composite factors, and 1 global EI score. The response rate was 42.8% (n = 139, women = 84). Global EI was not significantly different between men and women resident physicians (p = 0.74). Women scored higher than men in the TEIQue facets impulse control (p = 0.004) and relationships (p = 0.004). Men scored higher than women in 2 facets, stress management (p = 0.008) and emotion management (p = 0.023). Within surgery (n = 85, women = 46), women scored higher than men in impulse control (p = 0.006), whereas men scored higher in stress management (p = 0.008). Men and women residents across 3 specialties demonstrated near-identical global EI scores. However, gender differences in specific TEIQue facets suggest that similar to the general population, men and women residents may benefit from specific training of different EI domains to enhance well-rounded development. The lack of significant gender differences within surgery may indicate that surgery attracts individuals with particular EI profiles regardless of gender. Future research should focus on the functional relationship between educational interventions that promote targeted EI development and enhanced clinical performance.

Global Emotional Intelligence and Six Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence in Indian and Foreign Students with respect to DemographicVariables – (A Comparative Study)

The concept of Emotional Intelligence has become a very interesting topic of psychological research in recent years. Emotional intelligence is still not completely understood, but the important thing is that Emotions play a very critical role in the overall quality of personal and professional lives. The purpose of the present research was to study Emotional Intelligence among Indian and Foreign Students with respect to demographic variables ( Gender, age , Educational Qualification, Marital Status , Level of Sociability , Birth Order, Socioeconomic Status and Religion ) – A comparative study . Sample consisted of 400 students . 200 Men and 200 Women .The age range of 20 to 35 years from different Ph.D , M.Phil and MA courses . The sample was drawn from education institutes such as Osmania University ( OU ) , English and Foreign Language University (E F L U) , Hyderabad Central University (HCU) and Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University ( JNTU ) India . The number of 32 foreign countries studied and compared with Indian students in this research . Tools used in the present study to collect data was Emotional Intelligence Inventory N Shutte (1998). Later the data was analyzed by using ANOVA , Independent t , Mean Score , Standard Deviation and Pearson Correlation . Results presented that there was no significant differences between Indian and Foreign students with respect to total score of Emotional Intelligence but it was found that Foreign students showed higher Emotional Intelligence as compared to Indian students in two Dimensions of Emotional Intelligence 1Other’s Emotion ( Understanding and recognizing other people’s emotion ) and 2Optimism (A mental attitude or world view that interprets situations and events as being best ). It was concluded from this study that there was no differences between Girls and Boys with respect to Emotional Intelligence . It was also found that Foreign students showed higher emotional intelligence as compared to Indian students as regards to age group between 25-30 . Results also indicated that there was no statistically significant differences between Indian and Foreign students in Emotional Intelligence with respect to the other Demographic variables included to : ( Gender , Educational Qualification, Marital Status , Level of Sociability , Birth Order, Socioeconomic Status and Religion ) in this study.

What emotional intelligence traits make citizens really active? An empirical study

The trait emotional intelligence and its relation to civil organizational membership, labor market status, gender and age was studied in 725 inhabitants of a Hungarian historic town as part of a tourism destination project with the support of the local government. The research also explored the reasons why people chose to settle in this town.Regarding the research method a firmly reliable and internationally used TEIQue (Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire) was applied. The results showed that locals have average global emotional intelligence level with high well-being (including optimism, happiness and self-esteem facets) and emotionality (including relationship, empathy, emotion expression and emotion perception facets). Citizens who were active members of a local community (e.g. museum-, sport-, environment protection club or association) gained higher global emotional intelligence averages compared to those who were not members. Those locals who had an active working status and were members of any local community have the highest emotional intelligence averages globally and also on factor levels (well-being, emotionality, sociability and self-control). There was a difference in gender: although men’s and women’s global emotional intelligence levels were similar, women’s average scores were higher in well-being and emotionality while men’s in sociability and self-control. They also differed in the reasons given to choose Veszprém as a hometown. While men rather settled down for work and family reasons, women’s decisions were influenced by falling love with the town and surroundings and the school years they spent locally.The correlation analyses confirmed the relation between emotional intelligence and civil membership and also a strong relationship was found between emotional intelligence and education. Self-control, sociability, self-motivation and adaptability were identified as items related to active civil membership. Significant correlation was found between civil membership and emotional intelligence among the 26–35 and 51–64 age groups. Unexpectedly with women no relationship was found between emotional intelligence and civil membership while among men emotionality and well-being showed correlation with membership. Education relations by gender indicated that women’s level of education correlates with all emotional intelligence factors except self-control whereas men’s level of education showed relationships with sociability and self-control.

The Assessment of Emotional Intelligence Among Candidates Interviewing for General Surgery Residency

There is an increasing demand for physicians to possess strong personal and social qualities embodied in the concept of emotional intelligence (EI). However, the residency selection process emphasizes mainly academic accomplishments. In this system, the faculty interview is the primary means of evaluating the nontangible, nonacademic attributes of a candidate. To determine whether the impressions derived from faculty interviews correlate with an applicant's actual EI as measured by a validated objective instrument. Participating applicants interviewing for a surgical residency position at Stanford completed an EI inventory Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). Faculty estimated the EI of the applicants they interviewed using a corresponding 360° evaluation form. Multivariate linear regression was performed to identify demographic and academic factors predictive of EI. Applicant TEIQue scores and faculty 360° impressions were correlated using Pearson coefficients. Mean EI of the cohort was higher than that of the average population (5.43 vs 4.89, p<0.001). Age was the only demographic variable that significantly informed EI (B = 0.07, p = 0.005). Among the academic factors considered, United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 score was a slight negative predictor of EI (B =-0.007, p = 0.04). Applicant global EI scores did not correlate with faculty impressions of overall EI (r = 0.27, p = 0.06). Of the 4 domains that comprise global EI, sociability and emotionality demonstrated a moderate correlation between applicant and faculty scores (r = 0.31, p = 0.03 and r = 0.27, p = 0.05, respectively). None of the fifteen individual facets of EI demonstrated any correlation between applicant and faculty ratings (r =-0.12 to 0.26, p = 0.06-0.91). No association was found between applicant TEIQue and traditional faculty interview evaluations (r = 0.18, p = 0.19). Applicant EI correlated poorly with academic parameters and was not accurately assessed by faculty interviews. Methods that better capture this dimension should be incorporated into the residency selection process.

A comparative analysis of emotional intelligence in the UK and Australian radiographer workforce

Emotional intelligence (EI) in the UK radiographer workforce has been benchmarked using the trait emotional intelligence model and the profile of the profession in the UK has begun to emerge. There are cultural differences between countries that have been shown to have an effect on EI, therefore this paper aims to benchmark the Global and four factor scores of Trait EI in the Australian radiographer population; to explore any differences within the two main professional groupings, diagnostic and therapeutic radiographers, and to compare the Australian radiographer workforce scores with those of the UK previously published. The published and validated trait EI questionnaire of Petrides was used as the survey tool for the Global EI and the four factors of Well-being, Emotionality, Self-control and Sociability.There was only one difference found in the five factors studied between the UK and Australian radiographer workforce, that of Well-being (p ≤ 0.01). No differences emerged between the diagnostic and therapy disciplines nor was a relationship found between EI and the Australian leadership in contrast to the UK workforce findings. Differences were found in the demographic profiles of the two countries and the implications of the above findings are discussed.This paper has benchmarked the EI of the Australian workforce and found a difference in well-being between the UK and Australian radiographer workforce. The Australian diagnostic and therapy disciplines were no different in their EI profiles. No relationship was found between EI and leadership in the Australian radiographer workforce.

The assessment of emotional intelligence among candidates interviewing for general surgery residency

Background There is an increasing demand for physicians to possess strong personal and social qualities embodied in the concept of emotional intelligence (EI). However, the residency selection process emphasizes mainly academic accomplishments. In this system, the faculty interview is the primary means of evaluating the nontangible, nonacademic attributes of a candidate. Objective To determine whether the impressions derived from faculty interviews correlate with an applicant's actual EI as measured by a validated objective instrument. Study Design Participating applicants interviewing for a surgical residency position at Stanford completed an EI inventory Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue). Faculty estimated the EI of the applicants they interviewed using a corresponding 360° evaluation form. Multivariate linear regression was performed to identify demographic and academic factors predictive of EI. Applicant TEIQue scores and faculty 360° impressions were correlated using Pearson coefficients. Results Mean EI of the cohort was higher than that of the average population (5.43 vs 4.89, p B = 0.07, p=0.005). Among the academic factors considered, United States Medical Licensing Examination Step 1 score was a slight negative predictor of EI ( B =−0.007, p=0.04). Applicant global EI scores did not correlate with faculty impressions of overall EI ( r = 0.27, p=0.06). Of the 4 domains that comprise global EI, sociability and emotionality demonstrated a moderate correlation between applicant and faculty scores ( r = 0.31, p=0.03 and r = 0.27, p=0.05, respectively). None of the fifteen individual facets of EI demonstrated any correlation between applicant and faculty ratings ( r =−0.12 to 0.26, p=0.06-0.91). No association was found between applicant TEIQue and traditional faculty interview evaluations ( r = 0.18, p=0.19). Conclusions Applicant EI correlated poorly with academic parameters and was not accurately assessed by faculty interviews. Methods that better capture this dimension should be incorporated into the residency selection process.

A UK-wide analysis of trait emotional intelligence within the radiography profession

The aim of this study was to profile the Trait emotional intelligence (EI) of the radiography profession, explore any differences between subgroups, compare the profession with a normative group and investigate the relationship between EI and the leaders of the profession. An online UK-wide survey was conducted using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire, a self-report measure. Three main analyses were undertaken to investigate any differences between the sample and population, the radiographer subgroups and the sample and a normative group. The sample had similar characteristics to the population. There were differences between types of radiographer, with nuclear medicine radiographers scoring consistently lower than other groups. There were differences between the leaders and other members of the profession particularly in the Sociability factor. Radiographers scored higher than the TEIQue normative group for Global EI and three of the four factors. The study has benchmarked the Trait EI of one healthcare profession and identified areas for future research to develop our understanding of emotional intelligence.

The influence of emotional intelligence on academic progress and achievement in UK university students

Previous research has found relationships between higher levels of emotional intelligence (EI) and academic success in both adolescents and adults. This study examines the relationship between overall EI and specific EI competencies in 135 undergraduate psychology students in the UK. EI was measured at the start of a psychology degree course using the Emotional Competence Inventory-University Edition (ECI-U II). Performance was assessed using retention statistics and students’ final average percentage mark (APM) at the end of their degree course. Results showed that there were no differences in overall EI or specific EI competencies in those students who graduated compared to those who failed to graduate. Whilst global EI did not significantly predict final APM, specific EI competencies (conscientiousness, adaptability, empathy, organisational awareness, and building bonds) significantly predicted APM after controlling for gender. Recommendations for the implementation of EI training in higher education institutions are considered.

Toward a brief multidimensional assessment of emotional intelligence: Psychometric properties of the Emotional Quotient Inventory—Short Form.

Although several brief instruments are available for the emotional intelligence (EI) construct, their conceptual coverage tends to be quite limited. One notable exception is the short form of the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i:S), which measures multiple EI dimensions in addition to a global EI index. Despite the unique advantage offered by the inventory, psychometric properties of the EQ-i:S scores have not yet been systematically evaluated. Such an evaluation was the main goal of the present investigation. Using data from 2,508 undergraduates, the authors conducted 2 studies involving factor structure, internal reliability, 6-month temporal stability, and construct validity of the EQ-i:S responses, both for the total EQ scale and for each constituent dimension. The results supported the multidimensional measurement structure of the EQ-i:S, with each dimension producing internally consistent, temporally stable, and theoretically meaningful responses. Scores on the EQ-i:S were associated more strongly with performance on an ability test of EI and with a conceptually similar construct of alexithymia than with the broader dimensions of basic personality and explained nontrivial amounts of incremental variance in the criterion symptoms of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Moreover, scores on each EQ-i:S dimension exhibited unique patterns of associations with the validation variables. The discussion highlights the advantages of the multidimensional approach in the assessment and study of EI.

The ability model of emotional intelligence: Searching for valid measures

Current measures of ability emotional intelligence (EI) – in particular the well-known Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) – suffer from several limitations, including low discriminant validity and questionable construct and incremental validity. We show that the MSCEIT is largely predicted by personality dimensions, general intelligence, and demographics having multiple R’s with the MSCEIT branches up to .66; for the general EI factor this relation was even stronger (Multiple R = .76). As concerns the factor structure of the MSCEIT, we found support for four first-order factors, which had differential relations with personality, but no support for a higher-order global EI factor. We discuss implications for employing the MSCEIT, including (a) using the single branches scores rather than the total score, (b) controlling for personality and general intelligence to ensure unbiased parameter estimates in the EI factors, and (c) accounting for measurement error. Failure to correctly model these methodological aspects may severely compromise predictive validity testing. We also discuss potential avenues for the improvement of ability-based tests.

Seven-Factor Model of Emotional Intelligence as Measured by Genos EI

In this investigation, a series of progressively more complex factor models was tested based on self-report and rater-report data derived from the workplace version of the Genos Emotional Intelligence Inventory (Genos EI). Based on a total sample of 4775 individual self-reports and 6848 rater-reports, a theoretically derived higher-order 7-factor model of emotional intelligence (EI) was found to be adequately well-fitting, in comparison to a competing global EI single-factor model and a five-factor model of EI. Internal consistency reliabilities associated with the total scale scores were approximately .95 and the subscale score reliabilities were approximately .80. The results are interpreted as largely supportive of a 7-factor model of EI as measured by Genos EI in both self- and rater-report formats.

Emotional Intelligence and Its Association with Orgasmic Frequency in Women

Up to 30% of women suffer from female orgasmic disorder (FOD)-the second most common type of female sexual dysfunction. FOD has been acknowledged to be multifactorial and recent research has implicated the importance of psychosocial risk factors. The aim of this study is to investigate whether normal variations in emotional intelligence--the ability to identify and manage emotions of one's self and others--are associated with orgasmic frequency during intercourse and masturbation. To our knowledge, this is the first such study in a large unselected population. A total of 2035 women from the TwinsUK registry completed questionnaires relating to emotional intelligence and sexual behavior. Global emotional intelligence was measured using the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Short Form (TEIQue-SF). Orgasmic frequency was assessed using two self-constructed questions. Using Spearman's rank correlation and quartile logistic regression, we investigated whether variations in emotional intelligence are associated with female orgasmic frequency during intercourse and masturbation. Emotional intelligence was not associated with the potential confounders of age and years of education, nor did we find a significant association between emotional intelligence and potential risk factors for FOD such as age, body mass index, physical or sexual abuse, or menopause. We found emotional intelligence to be positively correlated with both frequency of orgasm during intercourse (r = 0.13, P < 0.001) and masturbation (r = 0.23, P < 0.001). Women in the lowest quartile of emotional intelligence had an approximate twofold increased risk of infrequent orgasm (Intercourse = odds ratio [OR] 2.3, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.4-3.9; Masturbation = [OR] 1.8, [CI] 1.3-2.5). Low emotional intelligence seems to be a significant risk factor for low orgasmic frequency. Consideration of this behavioral risk factor may need to be incorporated into research into FOD and possible treatment approaches.

Sleep deprivation reduces perceived emotional intelligence and constructive thinking skills

Background and purpose Insufficient sleep can adversely affect a variety of cognitive abilities, ranging from simple alertness to higher-order executive functions. Although the effects of sleep loss on mood and cognition are well documented, there have been no controlled studies examining its effects on perceived emotional intelligence (EQ) and constructive thinking, abilities that require the integration of affect and cognition and are central to adaptive functioning. Patients and methods Twenty-six healthy volunteers completed the Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi) and the Constructive Thinking Inventory (CTI) at rested baseline and again after 55.5 and 58 h of continuous wakefulness, respectively. Results Relative to baseline, sleep deprivation was associated with lower scores on Total EQ (decreased global emotional intelligence), Intrapersonal functioning (reduced self-regard, assertiveness, sense of independence, and self-actualization), Interpersonal functioning (reduced empathy toward others and quality of interpersonal relationships), Stress Management skills (reduced impulse control and difficulty with delay of gratification), and Behavioral Coping (reduced positive thinking and action orientation). Esoteric Thinking (greater reliance on formal superstitions and magical thinking processes) was increased. Conclusions These findings are consistent with the neurobehavioral model suggesting that sleep loss produces temporary changes in cerebral metabolism, cognition, emotion, and behavior consistent with mild prefrontal lobe dysfunction.