Gland Dimensions Research Articles

Achados ultra-sonográficos na tireoidite

OBJETIVO: Avaliar os aspectos ultra-sonográficos da glândula tireóide em pacientes portadores de tireoidites. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Num período de nove meses, foram estudados 38 pacientes atendidos no Serviço de Ultra-sonografia do Instituto de Radiologia do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, com diagnóstico prévio de tireoidite. Trinta e seis deles eram do sexo feminino, cujas idades variaram entre 17 e 78 anos. As variáveis observadas e estudadas foram: o volume glandular, a ecogenicidade e a ecotextura, e a presença de linfonodos na cadeia VI cervical (pré-traqueal, o sítio de drenagem linfática preferencial da tireóide) e suas dimensões. RESULTADOS: Treze pacientes apresentavam bócio. A análise ao ultra-som mostrou que 37 das 38 glândulas apresentavam ecotextura heterogênea com hipoecogenicidade difusa. Todos os pacientes apresentavam alterações nos exames laboratoriais compatíveis com tireoidites. Foram encontrados linfonodos na cadeia cervical VI (pré-traqueal) em 28 pacientes, todos de aspecto reacional. Destes, dez foram submetidos a punção aspirativa por agulha fina e o resultado citológico foi de reação inflamatória. Não foram encontrados casos de tireoidites focais que pudessem simular nódulos. CONCLUSÃO: Podemos inferir que para auxiliar no diagnóstico das tireoidites os achados ultra-sonográficos de heterogeneidade e hipoecogenicidade glandular, associados aos linfonodos na cadeia cervical VI, são de grande importância quando correlacionados aos exames clínicos e laboratoriais.

Short duration testosterone infusions maintain male sex behavior in Syrian hamsters

In most mammalian species, reduced androgen availability is associated with marked reductions in male sexuality; conversely, androgen replacement in castrated males restores sex behavior within a few weeks. Testosterone (T) pulse duration, amplitude, frequency, and inter-pulse interval may be as important as total amount of hormone in determining target tissue responsiveness. We remain ignorant of the number and duration of daily T pulses necessary and sufficient to sustain male mating behavior. An in-dwelling infusion system was employed to vary T-pulse frequencies and durations. Daily 4 h infusions of aqueous T (100 μg/0.064 ml) and twice daily 4 h pulses of T (each 50 μg/0.064 ml) were sufficient to maintain ejaculatory behavior of sexually experienced castrated hamsters for 11 weeks post-castration; castrated hamsters infused with vehicle ceased to display the ejaculatory pattern 3 weeks after gonadectomy. Circulating T concentrations of hormone-infused hamsters declined markedly 7 h after the termination of each infusion. These results establish that male sex behavior can be sustained with infusions of relatively low T concentrations for 4 h/day and suggests that the basal concentrations of T sustained by the gonad during inter-pulse intervals may not be necessary for maintenance of sex behavior. 4 h T infusions were sufficient to maintain penile and seminal vesicles weights, but not ventral prostate weights or flank gland dimensions; the threshold for maintaining male sex behavior is lower than that for some androgen-dependent peripheral structures. Development of effective androgen replacement regimens that sustain sex behavior in castrated animals may be useful in the design of androgen replacement therapy for hypogonadal men.

Visual documentation of ovine pituitary gland development with magnetic resonance imaging following zeranol treatment

The objective of the current study was to determine whether magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) could be successfully utilized to document the effect of an oestrogenic anabolic agent on pituitary gland growth. The experimental animals consisted of two 1/2 sibling Suffolk wethers (castrated rams), which received either no implant (control, n = 1) or a 24 mg zeranol implant at day 0 and day 42 (zeranol; n = 1). Animals were anaesthetized with propofol and supported with oxygen during the MRI procedure. A mobile MRI unit with a 0.5 tesla (T), superconducting magnet was used to obtain 3 mm thick, non-contrast enhanced, T1-weighted (TR 500-600, TE25) sagittal, transverse and dorsal images of the pituitary gland. Sagittal images were recorded only when the mesencephalic aqueduct and infundibulum were distinctly visible in the same image. Pituitary glands were imaged at 14-day intervals for 70 days to determine if and when the anabolic effects of zeranol on pituitary gland growth could be visualized using MRI techniques. Three separate measurements of the pituitary gland dimensions made with the on-screen cursor were averaged to calculate pituitary gland dimensions and volume. A computer-assisted image analysis system and laser film images were used to determine pituitary gland area. Increases in pituitary gland volume for control and zeranol-treated animals were evident within 14 days, and by the end of the 70-day study, the increase in pituitary volume for the zeranol-treated animal was three times greater than that of the control animal. Overall, our results indicate that MRI technology can be successfully used to document the development of the pituitary gland in vivo. Application of knowledge gained from this novel approach to study the growth, development and function of endocrine glands over time, and within the same animal, will enhance human and animal endocrine diagnostic procedures.

Intraobserver and interobserver agreement, reproducibility, and accuracy of computed tomographic measurements of pituitary gland dimensions in healthy dogs

To determine the reproducibility and accuracy of computed tomographic (CT) measurements of pituitary gland dimensions in healthy dogs. 35 healthy sexually intact adult dogs. 2 observers independently viewed CT images of the skull in 35 dogs twice. Pituitary gland height, width, length, and volume and pituitary gland height-to-brain area ratio (P:B ratio) were measured or calculated. Intraobserver and interobserver agreement indexes (AIs) were calculated for pituitary gland dimensions. Computed tomography was performed also on 5 phantoms, and both observers measured phantom dimensions twice. True-value AIs were calculated for the phantom study. The mean +/- SD interobserver AI between observer 1 and 2 for pituitary gland height and the P:B ratio was 0.90 +/- 0.07. The intraobserver AI for pituitary gland height and the P:B ratio was 0.97 +/- 0.04 for observer 1 and 0.94 +/- 0.04 for observer 2. The intra and interobserver AIs for the other dimensions were lower than those for pituitary gland height and the P:B ratio. All phantom dimensions on CT images were underestimated significantly, compared with their true values. The intra- and interobserver AIs for pituitary gland dimension measurements on CT images were high. However, the same observer preferably should perform serial measurements. Window settings influence pituitary gland dimension measurements, and predetermined window settings are recommended to make comparisons among dogs. Pituitary gland dimension measurements made from CT images in our study underestimated the true values.

Efficacy of Neoadjuvant Dutasteride and Bicalutamide as a Cytoreductive Regimen Prior to Permanent Interstitial Brachytherapy

Materials/Methods: Between April 2003 and February 2005, 26 patients opted for cytoreduction with dutasteride (0.5 mg daily) and bicalutamide (50 mg daily). Following initiation of bicalutamide, liver function studies were obtained at 4 and 8 weeks to rule out hepatotoxicity. Prior to the initiation of medical therapy and at 3 months, all patients underwent a transrectal ultrasound volumetric study of the prostate gland, an ellipsoid volume determination of the prostate gland, and an ellipsoid volume determination of the transition zone. All ultrasounds were obtained by the same ultrasonographer. Variables analyzed include preand post-treatment prostate and transition zone volumes and changes in width, height, and length of the prostate gland and transition zone. Results: Prior to the initiation of dutasteride and bicalutamide, the mean prostate volume was 56.3 cm by volumetric evaluation and 51.5 cm by ellipsoid volume determination. Following a 3-month course of dutasteride and bicalutamide, the average prostate volume was 38.1 cm (a 33% reduction) and 34.8 cm (a 32% reduction) by volumetric and ellipsoid volume determinations respectively. Dutasteride and bicalutamide resulted in a 37.0% reduction in transition zone volume (22.6 cm versus 14.0 cm before and after treatment). In terms of width, height and length, the prostate gland and transition zone dimensions decreased on average from 11.0% to 17.4%.

Evaluation of the Reid index in infants and cases of SIDS

The Reid index is an instrument for the evaluation of chronic bronchitis. The thickness of the mucosa and of its gland layer are measured and the relationship is expressed as a gland/wall ratio. Specimens were obtained from 124 autopsies from the German National Study on SIDS (GeSID). The cases were divided into three groups: group 1 typical SIDS ( n=47), group 2 SIDS with signs of mild inflammation of the respiratory tract ( n=50) and group 3 unnatural death controls ( n=23). The Reid index was measured in sections from the trachea, bifurcation/main bronchi and bronchioli (staining HE and PAS). The Reid index was remarkably constant throughout the different levels of the respiratory tract (standard deviation range 0.06-0.10). A comparison of the three groups did not show statistically significant differences. Group 1: mean Reid index trachea 0.37, bifurcation/main bronchi 0.38, bronchioli 0.39. Group 2: mean Reid index trachea 0.40, bifurcation/main bronchi 0.38, bronchioli 0.38. Group 3: mean Reid index trachea 0.39, bifurcation/main bronchi 0.38, bronchioli 0.41. It can be concluded that the dimensions of bronchial glands do not vary in cases of SIDS as compared to controls. This demonstrates that the Reid index has no significance in the vast majority of SIDS cases and that acute inflammation commonly does not produce an elevated Reid index. In addition, the Reid index was confirmed to be a valid instrument to study the respiratory tract including the trachea due to its stability and it was found that the Reid index is age-dependent: compared to adults, the ratios in infants were higher.

Terpene deployment in Eucalyptus polybractea; relationships with leafstructure, environmental stresses, and growth.

Terpene deployment was examined in a population of Eucalyptus polybractea (R.Baker) trees. Eucalyptus polybractea is a terpene-accumulating species, which stores terpenes in oil glands beneath the leaf surface. Using regression analysis, we showed that leaf thickness, measured as leaf mass per area (LMA), influenced terpene content, apparently through regulation of gland dimensions, and thus, gland volume. We also examined how environmental factors affected terpene content through regulation of both LMA, and therefore, storage capacity, and the supply of resources for terpene synthesis. Neither water stress, measured using carbon isotope ratios as an indicator, nor nutrient stress, measured as foliar nitrogen and phosphorus content, accounted for observed variation in either terpene content or LMA. Phenolic content, measured as a possible competing carbon sink, did not account for variation in terpene content, and variation in environmental stresses could not account for differences in growth rate. However, both terpenes and total carbon-based secondary metabolites (terpenes and phenolics) showed positive correlations with growth, suggesting plants gain a growth advantage by deploying greater amounts of secondary metabolites.

Assessment of the accuracy of computed tomography for measurement of normal equine pituitary glands.

To describe the anatomic features of the pituitary gland region in horses via computed tomography (CT) and determine the accuracy of CT for estimating normal equine pituitary gland dimensions. 25 adult horses with no clinical signs of pituitary disease. Transverse CT images and gross transverse tissue sections were compared in 2 horses. Contrast-enhanced CT of the pituitary gland region was performed postmortem in 23 horses with 4 slice thickness and interval settings (10-mm contiguous or overlapping slices and 4-mm contiguous or overlapping slices). Gross and CT estimates of pituitary gland dimensions were compared via ANOVA. Accuracy of CT estimates was calculated with gross pituitary gland measurements as the known value. Pituitary glands were located between the temporomandibular joints and had contrast enhancement. Mean gross dimensions were length, 2.11 cm; width, 2.16 cm; height, 0.98 cm; and volume, 2.66 cm3. Gross measurements and CT estimates of pituitary gland length from 10-mm contiguous and overlapping slices did not differ. Gross measurements and CT estimates of pituitary gland width from 4-mm contiguous and overlapping slices did not differ. Estimates of height and volume from all CT techniques differed from gross measurements. Accuracies for CT estimates were length, 88 to 99%; width, 81 to 92%; height, 58 to 71%; and volume, 43 to 55%. Accuracy of estimates of pituitary gland dimension in horses varied with CT scanning technique; via CT estimates of length and width of glands were more accurate than estimates of height or volume.

The fetal adrenal gland in risk pregnancy

Improvement of the methods used in prenatal diagnosis will contribute to a timely detection of a diseased fetus, and will be the first step in its recovery. Regulating the pathological condition of the mother will surely contribute to decrease the risk of delivering children with an increased risk of morbidity.

Postnatal growth of the rat palatine gland

To elucidate how the palatine glands grow postnatally, the palatine glands of rats from 0 to 8 weeks of age were investigated histologically and immunohistochemically. Under light microscope, three dimensions of the right part of the palatine glands were measured and the total number of excretory ducts of the glands was counted from the parasagittal serial sections. Immunohistochemistry with anti-5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU) monoclonal antibody was also employed to detect the cellular proliferative activity. At birth (0 weeks), the palatine glands consisted of ducts and immature acini. The ducts in the glands were connected with excretory ducts. After 2 weeks, there was no duct in the glands. Most acinar cells became mature as mucous cells and took the form of tubulo-acini connected directly with excretory ducts. In the posterior region of the glands, serous acinar cells forming demilunes were occasionally seen. All three dimensions of the palatine glands became longer, and the number of excretory ducts tended to increase. Immunohistochemistry showed acinar and duct cells were highly proliferative in early stage of postnatal life and their proliferative activity decreased thereafter. This study demonstrated that immature rat palatine glands of newborn rats grow three-dimensionally during maturation, and that the parenchymal cell proliferation contributes to the growth of the rat palatine glands. In addition, it is suggested that the glandular tissue arises from the excretory ducts formed postnatally.

A Model of the Gastric Gland Ejection Cycle: Low Ejection Fractions Require Reduction of the Glandular Dead Space

This paper was inspired by the reported results of authors from Uppsala and Lund that gastric glands in rats rhythmically contract 3–7 cycles per minute and develop luminal pressures more than 10 mmHg. To ensure that pepsinogen is not retained in the acid-rich section of the gland, ejection fractions would need to be more than 50% of the gland volume. We have tried to calculate the ejection fraction of such contractions. Dimensions of human gastric glands were measured on the fresh frozen samples of macroscopically and histologically normal gastric mucosa. In total, 18 specimens (from nine persons) were measured under the microscope. The density of glands was 135±11 (mean±S.D.) glands per mm2of gastric mucosa. A typical gastric gland is a tubular structure 1.2±0.22 mm long and 0.03–0.05 mm wide. We have used 1 mm for length and 0.03 mm for the gland diameter to calculate that each gland approximates a volume of 707 pl, suggesting that the total glandular volume for 15 million glands reaches 10.6 ml. Further calculations based on one to five contractions per minute on an average and on the total volume of gastric glands of 10 ml showed that only ejection fractions less than 10% deliver daily volumes less than 3l. The presented model of the gastric gland activity is based on the idea that the low ejection fractions require a reduction of the glandular dead space. The reduced luminal pressure during the gland relaxation might cause backflux of hydrophobic viscoelastic mucus through the gland aperture. Repeated glandular contractions and relaxations would move the mucus all the way to the gland bottom, filling the gland cavity below the neck with an axial semisolid mucous cylinder. This filling would reduce the gland dead space. During contractions, the gland would eject mainly the peripheral, the more liquid part of its content. The decreasing luminal pressure in the relaxing gland would pull the outlet mucus inside, protecting gland apertures from the gastric juice.

Gonadotrophin secretion in prepubertal bull calves born in spring and autumn

The reproductive development of bull calves born in spring and autumn was compared. Mean serum LH concentrations in calves born in spring increased from week 4 to week 18 after birth and decreased by week 24. In bull calves born in autumn, mean LH concentrations increased from week 4 to week 8 after birth and remained steady until week 44. LH pulse amplitude was lower in bull calves born in autumn than in calves born in spring until week 24 of age (P < 0.05). There was a negative correlation between LH pulse frequency at week 12 after birth and age at puberty in bull calves, irrespective of season of birth, and LH pulse frequency at week 18 also tended to correlate negatively with age at puberty. Mean serum FSH concentrations, age at puberty, bodyweight, scrotal circumference, testes, prostate and vesicular gland dimensions, and ultrasonographic grey scale (pixel units) were not significantly different between bull calves born in autumn and spring. However, age and body-weight at puberty were more variable for bull calves born in autumn (P < 0.05). In a second study, bull calves born in spring received either a melatonin or sham implant immediately after birth and at weeks 6 and 11 after birth. Implants were removed at week 20. Mean LH concentrations, LH pulse frequency and amplitude, mean FSH concentrations and age at puberty did not differ between the two groups. No significant differences between groups in the growth and pixel units of the reproductive tract were observed by ultrasonography. In conclusion, although there were differences in the pattern of LH secretion in the prepubertal period between bull calves born in autumn and spring, the postnatal changes in gonadotrophin secretion were not disrupted by melatonin treatment in bull calves born in spring. Reproductive tract development did not differ between calves born in spring and autumn but age at puberty was more variable in bull calves born in autumn. LH pulse frequency during the early prepubertal period may be a vital factor in determining the age of bull calves at puberty.

Gonadotrophin secretion in prepubertal bull calves born in spring and autumn

The reproductive development of bull calves born in spring and autumn was compared. Mean serum LH concentrations in calves born in spring increased from week 4 to week 18 after birth and decreased by week 24. In bull calves born in autumn, mean LH concentrations increased from week 4 to week 8 after birth and remained steady until week 44. LH pulse amplitude was lower in bull calves born in autumn than in calves born in spring until week 24 of age (P &lt; 0.05). There was a negative correlation between LH pulse frequency at week 12 after birth and age at puberty in bull calves, irrespective of season of birth, and LH pulse frequency at week 18 also tended to correlate negatively with age at puberty. Mean serum FSH concentrations, age at puberty, bodyweight, scrotal circumference, testes, prostate and vesicular gland dimensions, and ultrasonographic grey scale (pixel units) were not significantly different between bull calves born in autumn and spring. However, age and body-weight at puberty were more variable for bull calves born in autumn (P &lt; 0.05). In a second study, bull calves born in spring received either a melatonin or sham implant immediately after birth and at weeks 6 and 11 after birth. Implants were removed at week 20. Mean LH concentrations, LH pulse frequency and amplitude, mean FSH concentrations and age at puberty did not differ between the two groups. No significant differences between groups in the growth and pixel units of the reproductive tract were observed by ultrasonography. In conclusion, although there were differences in the pattern of LH secretion in the prepubertal period between bull calves born in autumn and spring, the postnatal changes in gonadotrophin secretion were not disrupted by melatonin treatment in bull calves born in spring. Reproductive tract development did not differ between calves born in spring and autumn but age at puberty was more variable in bull calves born in autumn. LH pulse frequency during the early prepubertal period may be a vital factor in determining the age of bull calves at puberty.

Ultrasonographic biometry in normal salivary glands.

Specifications about the sizes of normal salivary glands are not available. We used ultrasonography to determine the sizes of the submandibular and parotid glands in 50 subjects, who were not suffering from diseases of the salivary glands. Volunteers were distributed equally concerning sex and age. Body weight did not differ more than 20% from ideal weight. Dimensions of the submandibular glands were: anterior-posterior length, 35 +/- 5.7 mm; paramandibular extension to gland depth, 14.3 +/- 5.7 mm; extension in frontal scanning, 33.7 +/- 5.4 mm. The parotid glands measured 46.3 +/- 7.7 mm in the axis parallel to the mandibular ramus and 37.4 +/- 5.6 mm in a transverse axis. The extensions of the parotid parenchyma were 7.4 +/- 1.7 mm lateral to the mandible and 22.8 +/- 3.6 mm dorsal to the mandible.

Ultrasonographic appearance of bull accessory sex glands

The accessory sex glands of bulls were studied using transrectal ultrasonography. Accessory sex gland dimensions of nine live bulls were ultrasonographically determined and were compared with post slaughter dimensions. Ultrasonographic measurements of vesicular gland height, ampullar diameter, and bulbourethral gland width were not significantly different from direct measurements in the same animals postslaughter (P > 0.24). However, ultrasonographic measurements of urethral height and bulbourethral gland height were significantly smaller than direct measurements (P < 0.05) and averaged 78.9 ± 2.7% of the direct measurements. Serial ultrasonographic measurements of the accessory sex glands of eight bulls were made over a three-week period. These measurements were repeatable over time in individual animals for each structure measured (coefficient of variation < 16%).

Bronchial gland dimensions in coalminers: influence of smoking and dust exposure

Bronchial gland dimensions in coalminers: influence of smoking and dust exposure

Changes in the dimensions of the oesophageal glands in root-knot nematodes during the onset of parasitism

Changes in the dimensions of the oesophageal glands of Meloidogyne javanica and M. incognita during the onset of parasitism and just before the start of moulting were measured in living specimens using Nomarski interference contrast optics and a computer-interfaced digitizer. As the second stage parasitic larvae of M. javanica increase in mean width from 14 to 32 μm, there is a corresponding decrease in the mean length of the oesophageal glands from 143 to 85 μm and an increase in their mean volume from 3·5 to 7·8 pl. As these changes occur, the nuclei are located more anteriorly and cluster closer together and the dorsal oesophageal gland and its nucleus become enlarged.

Bronchial gland dimensions in coalminers: influence of smoking and dust exposure.

Bronchi from 94 coalminers were examined for enlargement of the mucous glands. The measurements used were the mean and maximum ratios of gland thickness to wall thickness, the mean acinar diameter, and the ratio of the gland area to the area of the non-cartilaginous portion of the bronchial wall. The relationships between these measurements and the subjects' smoking habits and their past exposure to dust in the coal mines were analysed. Smoking was found to be significantly related to mean and maximum gland-to-wall ratios. In addition, coalmine dust exposure was found to be significantly related to maximum gland:wall ratio. No significant relationships were found between gland dimensions and pneumoconiosis or dust retained in the lung. These results lend support to the view that irritants encountered in an occupational environment may play an important part in the development of hypersecretion of mucus.

Comparisons of eccrine sweat gland anatomy in genetic, chromosomal, and other diseases, and a suggested procedure for use of sweat gland measurements in differential diagnosis.

Statistical analysis of the dimensions of microdissected eccrine sweat glands (duct length, coil volume, ratio of coil volume to duct length, and axis ratio of coil) was performed for several diseases (cystic fibrosis of the pancreas, Werdnig-Hoffmann disease, tetralogy of Fallot, chronic renal disease, and trisomies 13, 18, and 21) using both individual and grouped age-matched control patients. Duct length, coil volume, and the ratio of the two all rise with age. Eccrine gland duct length was found to be significantly large in tetralogy of Fallot and Werdnig-Hoffmann disease and small in chronic renal disease (less so in males than in females, trisomy 13 and trisomy 18). Secretory coil volume was significantly smaller than normal in trisomy 21 (Down syndrome) and in chronic renal disease, and the ratio of coil volume to duct length was low in trisomy 21 and chronic renal disease. The shape of the secretory coil (axis ratio) was possibly abnormal in trisomy 13. Gland dimensions were normal for cystic fibrosis. Using the multivariate procedure of discriminant analysis, it was found that sweat gland measures significantly contributed to the differentiation of diseases, after adjustments were made for variations in age-at-death. This suggested the possibility that criteria for distinction of clinically similar genetic, metabolic, or chromosomal diseases by study of the anatomic properties of eccrine glands obtained by skin biopsy could be developed. A procedure of analysis comparing the "percentage of normal" of gland dimensions for each disease to control values, and thereby differentiating disease categories on the basis of the "percentage of normal" values, is presented.

The Computed Tomographic Appearance of the Normal Pituitary Gland and Pituitary Microadenomas

With the use of axial and coronal computed tomography (CT), the authors compared the density, contrast enhancement, and dimensions of normal pituitary glands and pituitary microadenomas. The normal gland appears homogeneous, nearly isodense with brain tissue, and it enhances uniformly. Its upper surface is concave downward or flat and its height 2-7 mm. The cavernous sinuses, the third, fourth, and sixth cranial nerves, the infundibulum, and the adjacent carotid arteries are well demonstrated by CT. Abnormal height and upward convexity of the gland are reliable signs of prolactinoma; abnormal density and enhancement are suggestive signs. CT findings in prolactin- and ACTH-secreting tumors may differ. CT is more sensitive and more specific than polytomography in the diagnosis of pituitary adenoma.