GIS-based Multi-criteria Evaluation Research Articles

Effect of climate change on land suitability for surface irrigation and irrigation potential of the shallow groundwater in Ghana

Estimating the potential land resources suitable for irrigation and evaluating the possible impact of climate change on land suitability is essential for planning a sustainable agricultural system. This study applied a GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique to evaluate the suitability of land for irrigation in Ghana for a baseline period (1990 to 2010) and future time horizons 2050s (2041 to 2060) and 2070s (2061 to 2080). Key factors considered to evaluate the suitability of the land for irrigation include biophysical features (such as climate, land use, soil, and slope) and socioeconomic factors (such as proximity to roads and population density). These factors were weighted using a pairwise comparison matrix then reclassified and overlaid on a 30 m grid to estimate the irrigation potential of the country. Groundwater data from the British Geological Survey (BGS) were superimposed onto the land suitability map layer to evaluate the irrigation potential and the accessibility of shallow groundwater with simple water lifting technologies. Downscaled and bias-corrected future climate data from HadGEM2-ES under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCP) 4.5 emission scenario were used to represent the future climate horizon. Due to climate change, on average, rainfall will increase by 15 mm and 20 mm from the baseline period in the 2050s and 2070s, respectively. The average temperature shows a consistent increase in the majority of Ghana and a higher rate of increase is expected in the 2070s. Consequently, the rising temperature will increase the potential evapotranspiration by 6.0% and 7.6% in the 2050s and 2070s, respectively. The suitability analysis indicates that approximately 9% of the country is suitable for surface irrigation under the baseline period. A large portion of the potential land is located in the southwestern part of the country. The potential suitable land has an average groundwater access of 12 m from the surface with an average borehole potential yield of 2.5 L/second, which makes it favorable for utilization of simple water lifting technologies. Due to climate change, 9.5% of the suitable land will become unfavorable for irrigation in 2050s, and it is expected to reach 17% in 2070s.

Mapping Risk of Landslide at A Luoi District, Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam by GIS-Based Multi-Criteria Evaluation

The study was conducted to determine the weight of factors influencing landslides through the algorithm Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). These factors were used as inputs for establishing a landslide susceptibility map based on the geographic information technologies (GIS) at A Luoi District, Thua Thien Hue province. Results of the study showed that landslide risk could be divided into five levels: very low risk of landslide covered 17,638.22 ha (14%), low risk areas accounted for 41,036.20 ha (34%), medium risk of landslide covered an area of 22,380.84 ha (18%), high risk area was 27,176.99 ha (22.19%), and very high risk area was about 14,231 ha (12%). The results of this study could be used to support the implementation of land use planning, which could help reduce adverse impact of landslides on people and property.

GIS-based multicriteria evaluation of foundation conditions

This article deals with an evaluation of the engineering geological and hydrogeological conditions in Vajnory with relation to landuse planning. Vajnory is one of the city parts of Bratislava, the capital city of Slovakia, with huge building activity. Parametric maps were constructed using a multi-criterial approach and the result is a set of engineering geological and hydrogeological maps of geofactors which present a level of suitability for building foundations using map algebra tools in a GIS environment. Four geofactors which influenced the suitability for building foundations were selected — workability of soil, bearing capacity, groundwater level and aggressivity of groundwater. These factors were analysed for three different depth levels. The suitability map for building purposes at a depth of two meters under the surface showed foundation conditions for simple buildings with the basement below freezing level or for buildings with one underground level. The suitability map for a depth of five meters under the surface presents foundation conditions for buildings with two underground levels. The last evaluated level was for a depth of eight meters under the surface and analyses the foundation conditions for buildings with three underground levels.

Assessment of Suitable Areas for Home Gardens for Irrigation Potential, Water Availability, and Water-Lifting Technologies

The study was conducted in Lake Tana Basin of Ethiopia to assess potentially irrigable areas for home gardens, water availability, and feasibility of water-lifting technologies. A GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) technique was applied to access the potential of surface and groundwater sources for irrigation. The factors affecting irrigation practice were identified and feasibility of water-lifting technologies was evaluated. Pairwise method and expert’s opinion were used to assign weights for each factor. The result showed that about 345,000 ha and 135,000 ha of land were found suitable for irrigation from the surface and groundwater sources, respectively. The rivers could address about 1–1.2% of the irrigable land during dry season without water storage structure whereas groundwater could address about 2.2–2.4% of the irrigable land, both using conventional irrigation techniques. If the seven major dams within the basin were considered, surface water potential would be increased and satisfy about 21% of the irrigable land. If rainwater harvesting techniques were used, about 76% of the basin would be suitable for irrigation. The potential of surface and groundwater was evaluated with respect to water requirements of dominant crops in the region. On the other hand, rope pump and deep well piston hand pump were found with relatively the most (26%) and the least (9%) applicable low-cost water-lifting technologies in the basin.

GULLY EROSION SUSCEPTIBILITY MAPPING IN IKWUANO LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF ABIA STATE USING GIS TECHNIQUES

This research work assessed the gully erosion susceptibility of Ikwuano Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria using the GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation approach. The objectives were to identify susceptible areas, examine and evaluate the causes as well as the impacts and recommend possible control measures. The multi-criteria evaluation approach of pairwise comparison by Analytical Hierarchy Process was used to calculate and assign criteria weights to the 5 erosion factors. The pairwise comparison matrix was tested using Saaty Consistency Ratio to ensure accuracy. The five erosion controlling factors were analyzed in the GIS environment and prioritized as rainfall erosivity (R factor, 36%), soil erodibility (K factor, 30%), slope (LS factor, 19%), vegetative cover (C factor, 9%) and conservation practice (P factor, 6%) in order of importance. The susceptibility map was produced and validated by ground truthing. Gully initiations are widespread in the study area. Dormant gullies at Umulu, Ihim and Amuro are well-vegetated with bambusa vulgaris. The active gullies at Elemaga-Ibere and Amaegbu-Ariam are within the moderate to high susceptible areas. The major anthropogenic causes of erosion in the study area include sand mining, bad farming practices, lumbering, poor drainage system and abandoned road constructions. The impacts included the destruction of roads and houses, isolation of communities, loss of farmlands and silting of streams. Tree planting and regrassing, engineering and structural designs to channel runoff, proper road design, improved farming practices and engaging in sensitization of all stakeholders targeted on early stage preventive measures were recommended. The GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation approach has proved both useful and effective in the mapping of gully erosion susceptibility in Ikwuano Local Government Area of Abia State, Nigeria.

GIS-based multi-criteria earthquake hazards evaluation using analytic hierarchy process for a nuclear power plant site, west Alexandria, Egypt

Nuclear power plants are designed to prevent the hazardous effects of the earthquakes and any external events to keep the safety of the plant. Ninety-one shallow seismic refraction profiles were performed to determine shear wave velocity of the engineering layers at the site of El Dabaa area that is situated to the northern coastline of Egypt for seismic hazard microzonation evaluation according to hazard index values. A microzonation is a procedure of delineating an area into individual zones having different ranks of numerous seismic hazards. This will aid in classifying areas of high seismic risk which is vigorous for industrial design of nuclear structures. The site response analysis requires the characterization of subsurface materials considering local subsurface profiles of the site. Site classification of the area under investigation was undertaken using P- and S-waves and available borehole data. The studied nuclear power plant site has been characterized as per NEHRP site classification using an average velocity of transverse wave (V s 30 ) of depth 30 m which acquired from seismic survey. This site was categorized into two site classes: the major one is “site class B,” and the minor one is “site class A.” The attenuation coefficient, the damping ratio and the liquefaction potential are geotechnical parameters which were derived from P- and S-waves, and have their major effects on the seismic hazard contribution. 1D ground response analysis was carried out in the places of seismic profiles inside the site for estimating the amount of ground quaking using peak ground acceleration (PGA), site amplification, predominant frequency and spectral accelerations on the surface of ground by the DEEPSOIL software package. Seven factors (criteria) deliberated to assess the earthquake hazard index map are: (1) the peak ground acceleration at the bedrock, (2) the amplification of the site, (3) the liquefaction potential, (4) the main frequency of the earthquake signal, (5) the average V s of the first 30 m from the ground surface, (6) the depth to the groundwater and (7) the depth to the bedrock. These features were exemplified in normalized maps after uniting them to 0–1 scores according to some criteria by the minimum and maximum values as linear scaling points. Multi-criteria evaluation is an application of multi-criteria decision analysis theory that used for developing a seismic hazard index map for a nuclear power plant site at El Dabaa area in ArcGIS 10.1 software. Two models of decision making were used in this work for seismic hazard microzonation. The analytic hierarchy process model was applied to conduct the relative weights of the criteria by pairwise comparison using Expert Choice Software. An earthquake hazard index map was combined using Weighted Linear Combination model of the raster weighted overlay tool of ArcGIS 10.1. The results indicated that most of the study site of the nuclear power plant is a region of low to moderate hazard; its values are ranging between 0.2 and 0.4.

The use of a GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation technique for the development of a zoning plan for a seasonally variable Ramsar wetland site in Syria: Sabkhat Al-Jabboul

Zoning is an important tool used in the management of protected areas and wetlands. It has been developed to apply conservation objectives at different levels of management where conflicting uses can be taking place. GIS is increasingly used to solve land allocation problem with techniques based on zoning, varying from simple overlays to complex multi-criteria evaluation techniques (MCE). This study presents a new approach to the development of zoning plans for Ramsar sites that exhibit major seasonal variations in conservation value and human use and threats. It employs a well-defined GIS-based MCE technique which involves both expert judgment and a set of criteria based on ecological and potential threats. A GIS model using the additive approach in MCE was developed to evaluate Sabkhat Al-Jabboul the only Ramsar site in Syria. The model was applied separately for the spring and winter to accommodate seasonal changes in the intensity and spatial distribution of conservation areas and threats across the site. Separate zoning plans were developed for each of the two main seasons. The zoning plan of the spring season, which is the birds breeding season, included three management zones; the special conservation zone, the conservation buffer zone, and the wise use zone. The winter zoning plan, where the bird feeding activity was the major activity includes two zones: a special conservation zone and a wise use zone. Thus, in cases like Sabkhat Al-Jabboul, where the wetlands are subject to significant seasonal variations, in their ecology and human utilization, it is recommended that flexible seasonal zoning plans are developed to assist in the organization of permitted activities, and to reduce the potential human impacts throughout the year.

Geographic origins of a War of 1812 skeletal sample integrating oxygen and strontium isotopes with GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation analysis

The oxygen and strontium isotope composition of human bones and teeth are used to investigate human geographic origins and mobility in the archaeological record. We measured the oxygen (18O/16O) and strontium (87Sr/86Sr) isotope ratios in 14 teeth and 22 bone sections from 19th century soldiers who died in the Battle of Stoney Creek, Ontario, and were buried in a commingled mass grave at Smith's Knoll. To spatially locate the tooth isotope data we generated overlay maps of the eastern United States and Great Britain based on regional 87Sr/86Sr and meteoric precipitation δ18O variation. To do this, we employed a new method to visualize the isotopic information using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation analysis (GIS-MCE), a computational algorithm yet to be applied to stable isotope migration research. Our data confirm historic information concerning the areas from which American and British soldiers originated or were recruited, namely from the mid- to northerly latitude United States and Great Britain. This approach revealed the probable identity of at least one British soldier, and possibly one American soldier within the Smith's Knoll assemblage, making it the first archaeological study to provide substantial evidence for the identity of individuals interred in a mass grave. Our analysis highlights a new way to integrate isotopic and geophysical data through GIS-MCE technology to locate the most likely place of origin of individuals in a skeletal sample.

Landfill site selection with GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation technique. A case study in Béni Mellal-Khouribga Region, Morocco

Given the potential negative environmental impacts linked with wild landfills in Beni Mellal-Khouribga Region, there is a significant need to accelerate the development of controlled intermunicipal landfills. Any landfill project requires identification of the most suitable sites to prevent environmental adversity. So, this study was conducted to identify candidate landfill sites using geographic information system (GIS) and multi-criteria evaluation techniques. Ten suitability criteria including distance to residential areas, aspect (wind), geology (lithology), distance to faults, distance to surface water, groundwater table, land use, distance to roads, elevation, and slope are considered in the siting assessment. The thematic maps of all criteria were prepared in GIS environment using Boolean and analytic hierarchy process (AHP) standardization. After hiding unsuitable areas of landfill sites identified by the Boolean method, each criterion was evaluated with the aid of AHP and the final landfill site suitability map was generated using the overlay analysis in GIS. The results showed that 54% of the study area is not suitable, 12% is lowly suitable, 24% is moderately suitable, and indeed 10% is highly suitable for landfilling. The identified suitable areas will require careful field studies before the final decision for landfill site selection. Nonetheless, this study can help planners and local and regional authorities to better manage the solid waste in the region.

Assessing potential land suitable for surface irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia

Although Ethiopia has abundant land for irrigation, only a fraction of its potential land is being utilized. This study evaluates suitability of lands for irrigation using groundwater in Ethiopia using GIS-based Multi-Criteria Evaluation (MCE) techniques in order to enhance the country's agricultural industry. Key factors that significantly affect irrigation suitability evaluated in this study include physical land features (land use, soil, and slope), climate (rainfall and evapotranspiration), and market access (proximity to roads and access to market). These factors were weighted using a pair-wise comparison matrix, then reclassified and overlaid to identify suitable areas for groundwater irrigation using a 1-km grid. Groundwater data from the British Geological Survey were used to estimate the groundwater potential, which indicates the corresponding irrigation potential for major crops. Results indicated that more than 6 million ha of land are suitable for irrigation in Ethiopia. A large portion of the irrigable land is located in the Abbay, Rift Valley, Omo Ghibe, and Awash River basins. These basins have access to shallow groundwater (i.e., depth of groundwater less than 20 m from the surface) making it easier to extract. The comparison between available groundwater and total crop water requirements indicate that groundwater alone may not be sufficient to supply all suitable land. The study estimates that only 8% of the suitable land can be irrigated with the available shallow groundwater. However, groundwater is a viable option for supplementing surface water resources for irrigation in several basins in the country.

Identification of Suitable Land for Green Gram Production Using GIS Based Analytical Hierarchy Process in Kitui County, Kenya

The aim of this study was to develop a suitability model for Green gram production in Kitui County using GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation. Soil and topography were chosen as the main criteria for analysis and 6 sub criteria (soil texture, depth, pH, cation exchange capacity drainage and slope). The criteria were selected based on crop experts’ knowledge and available Green gram requirements literature. The criteria maps were reclassified into 4 suitability levels Highly (S1), Moderately (S2), Marginally (S3) and not suitable (N) based on FAO guidelines. The Analytical Hierarchy Process decision making tool was used to determine the perceived weights or influence that each criteria carries. The weights were then used as inputs in the weighted overlay and a suitability map generated. Based on the findings all land is suitable for Green gram production with varying degrees of suitability where 32.7%, 23.7% and 43.6% as highly, moderately and marginally suitable respectively. Major limitations that prevent land from being highly suitable include acidity, alkalinity and poor drainage in soils and in some cases steep slopes.

GIS-Based Multicriteria Evaluation Approach in Planning Tourism Development Sites in Environmentally Sensitive Areas

Multicriteria evaluation approach has become useful mechanism in selecting choice possibilities based on number of alternatives. This approach has become useful for planners and engineers especially when dealing with allocating suitable sites for tourism development, which has often being undertaken within environmentally sensitive areas. Taking Langkawi Island, which has pristine natural resources, as example, this study demonstrates the usage of GIS-based multicriteria evaluation approach in identifying environmentally sensitive areas to be protected and conserved in planning for tourism development. Criteria used for determining ESA included coastline, topography, natural resources and forest, and tourism sites. Soft-information gathered through interviews with 3 different stakeholders/experts namely engineer, environmental officer and planner, to calculate weights for each criteria mentioned above. The study found that new built-up area shall only be confined within existing urban area namely Kuah area in order to ensure ESA and tourism sites to be protected and conserved. GIS-based MCE approach provides systematic mechanism where soft information can also contribute towards planning for tourism development as well as safeguarding the environment.

Suitability of Water Harvesting in the Upper Blue Nile Basin, Ethiopia: A First Step towards a Mesoscale Hydrological Modeling Framework

Extreme rainfall variability has been one of the major factors to famine and environmental degradation in Ethiopia. The potential for water harvesting in the Upper Blue Nile Basin was assessed using two GIS-based Multicriteria Evaluation methods: (1) a Boolean approach to locate suitable areas for in situ and ex situ systems and (2) a weighted overlay analysis to classify suitable areas into different water harvesting suitability levels. The sensitivity of the results was analyzed to the influence given to different constraining factors. A large part of the basin was suitable for water harvesting: the Boolean analysis showed that 36% of the basin was suitable for in situ and ex situ systems, while the weighted overlay analysis showed that 6–24% of the basin was highly suitable. Rainfall has the highest influence on suitability for water harvesting. Implementing water harvesting in nonagricultural land use types may further increase the benefit. Assessing water harvesting suitability at the larger catchment scale lays the foundation for modeling of water harvesting at mesoscale, which enables analysis of the potential and implications of upscaling of water harvesting practices for building resilience against climatic shocks. A complete water harvesting suitability study requires socioeconomic analysis and stakeholder consultation.

Assessment of ecological passages along road networks within the Mediterranean forest using GIS-based multi criteria evaluation approach.

Major roads cause barrier effect and fragmentation on wildlife habitats that are suitable places for feeding, mating, socializing, and hiding. Due to wildlife collisions (Wc), human-wildlife conflicts result in lost lives and loss of biodiversity. Geographical information system (GIS)-based multi criteria evaluation (MCE) methods have been successfully used in short-term planning of road networks considering wild animals. Recently, wildlife passages have been effectively utilized as road engineering structures provide quick and certain solutions for traffic safety and wildlife conservation problems. GIS-based MCE methods provide decision makers with optimum location for ecological passages based on habitat suitability models (HSMs) that classify the areas based on ecological requirements of target species. In this study, ecological passages along Motorway 52 within forested areas in Mediterranean city of Osmaniye in Turkey were evaluated. Firstly, HSM coupled with nine eco-geographic decision variables were developed based on ecological requirements of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) that were chosen as target species. Then specified decision variables were evaluated using GIS-based weighted linear combination (WLC) method to estimate movement corridors and mitigation points along the motorway. In the solution process, two linkage nodes were evaluated for eco-passages which were determined based on the least-cost movement corridor intersecting with the motorway. One of the passages was identified as a natural wildlife overpass while the other was suggested as underpass construction. The results indicated that computer-based models provide accurate and quick solutions for positioning ecological passages to reduce environmental effects of road networks on wild animals.

Estimation on wetland loss and its restoration potential in Modern Yellow River Delta, Shandong Province of China

Wetland is one of the most important ecosystems with varied functions and structures, and its loss has been a major issue. Wetland loss in Modern Yellow River Delta (MYRD) becomes a serious environmental problem, so its restoration attracts a great deal of attention from academia and governments. This article proposes a GIS-based multi-criteria comprehensive evaluation methodology for potential estimation of wetland restoration, using MYRD as an example. The model uses four kinds of data (hydrology, terrain, soil, and land use) and could be adapted by planners for use in identifying the suitability of locations as wetland mitigation sites at any site or region. In the application of the model in the MYRD, the research developed a lost wetland distributed map taking the better wetland situation of 1995 as the reference, and elevated the overall distribution trends of wetland restoration potential based on wetland polygon. The results indicated that the total area of wetland loss from 1995 to 2014 was 568.1...

Assessment of surface water irrigation potential in the Ethiopian highlands: The Lake Tana Basin

Although Ethiopia has a large potential to develop surface irrigation, only 5% of the 30 to 70millionhectares (ha) potentially available has been developed. To examine the underlying causes of this lack of irrigation development, this study evaluates the suitability of surface water irrigation for the Lake Tana Basin development corridor. Surface water availability and land potentially suitable for irrigation development were considered. Surface water potential was examined by analyzing long-term daily historical river discharges. Land suitable for irrigation was determined with a GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation, which considers the interaction of various factors such as climate, river proximity, soil type, land cover, topography/slope, and market outlets. The results indicate that nearly 20% of the Lake Tana Basin is suitable for surface irrigation. However, after analyzing 27years of river discharge, less than 3% of the potential irrigable area (or less than 0.25% of the basin area) could be irrigated consistently with runoff from the river systems. Thus, the irrigation potential in the Lake Tana Basin can be met by increasing dry season flows, by improving upland infiltration, by supplying water from reservoirs, or by pumping water directly from Lake Tana.

A GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation for wind farm site selection. A regional scale application in Greece

The present paper proposes and implements an integrated evaluation framework for selecting the most appropriate sites for wind-farm development projects. This framework focuses on the combined use of geographic information systems (GIS) and spatial multi-criteria decision analysis, aiming to provide a decision tool for wind-farm planning at the regional level. This procedure has been developed by means of various technological, economic, social, and environmental criteria (known as siting criteria), which were used either as constraints and/or as evaluation factors in order to identify first the potential/appropriate sites for wind farm installation and then to evaluate these sites using a composite Suitability Index (SI). The proposed decision tool is thus able to get the optimal locations for future projects, as well as the suitability score of the already licensed projects. The results of this paper support the potential role of planners in designating areas for wind farm development.

Erratum: Spatial analysis of groundwater potential using remote sensing and GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation in Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia

Erratum: Spatial analysis of groundwater potential using remote sensing and GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation in Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia

Spatial analysis of groundwater potential using remote sensing and GIS-based multi-criteria evaluation in Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia

Sustainable development and management of groundwater resources require application of scientific principles and modern techniques. An integrated approach is implemented using remote sensing and geographic information system (GIS)-based multi-criteria evaluation to identify promising areas for groundwater exploration in Raya Valley, northern Ethiopia. The thematic layers considered are lithology, lineament density, geomorphology, slope, drainage density, rainfall and land use/cover. The corresponding normalized rates for the classes in a layer and weights for thematic layers are computed using Saaty’s analytical hierarchy process. Based on the computed rates and weights, aggregating the thematic maps is done using a weighted linear combination method to obtain a groundwater potential (GP) map. The GP map is verified by overlay analysis with observed borehole yield data. Map-removal and single-parameter sensitivity analyses are used to examine the effects of removing any of the thematic layers on the GP map and to compute effective weights, respectively. About 770 km2 (28 % of the study area) is designated as ‘very good’ GP. ‘Good’, ‘moderate’ and ‘poor’ GP areas cover 630 km2 (23 %), 600 km2 (22 %) and 690 km2 (25 %), respectively; the area with ‘very poor’ GP covers 55 km2 (2 %). Verification of the GP map against observed borehole yield data shows 74 % agreement, which is fairly satisfactory. The sensitivity analyses reveal the GP map is most sensitive to lithology with a mean variation index of 6.5 %, and lithology is the most effective thematic layer in GP mapping with mean effective weight of 52 %.

GIS-based multicriteria evaluation with multiscale analysis to characterize urban landslide susceptibility in data-scarce environments

Landslides can have a severe negative impact on the socio-economic and environmental state of individuals and their communities. Minimizing these impacts is dependent on the effective identification of risk areas using a susceptibility analysis process. In such a process, output maps are generated to determine various levels of threat to human populations. However, the reliability of the process is controlled by critical factors such as data availability and data quality. In data-scarce environments, susceptibility analysis done at multiple interlocking geographic scales can provide a convergence of evidence to reliably identify risk areas. In this study, multiscale analysis and fuzzy sets are combined with GIS-based multicriteria evaluation (MCE) to determine landslide susceptibility levels for areas of the Metro Vancouver region, British Columbia, Canada. Landslide-conditioning parameters are chosen based on their relevance and effect on a particular scale of analysis. These parameters are derived for three geographic scales using digital elevation models, drainage networks and road networks. An analytical hierarchy process (AHP) analysis provides relative weights of importance to combine variables. The landslide susceptibility analysis is done for regional, municipal and local scales at resolutions of 50 m, 10 m, and 1 m respectively. At each scale, susceptibility models are validated against real inventory data using the seed cell area index (SCAI) method. The strong inverse correlation between the map classes and the SCAI adds to confidence in the results. The developed approach can enable analysts in data-scarce environments to reliably identify susceptible areas thereby improving hazard mitigation, emergency services targeting, and overall community planning.