Giant Tsunami Research Articles

Effect of a giant meteorite impact on Paleoarchean surface environments and life

Large meteorite impacts must have strongly affected the habitability of the early Earth. Rocks of the Archean Eon record at least 16 major impact events, involving bolides larger than 10 km in diameter. These impacts probably had severe, albeit temporary, consequences for surface environments. However, their effect on early life is not well understood. Here, we analyze the sedimentology, petrography, and carbon isotope geochemistry of sedimentary rocks across the S2 impact event (37 to 58 km carbonaceous chondrite) forming part of the 3.26 Ga Fig Tree Group, South Africa, to evaluate its environmental effects and biological consequences. The impact initiated 1) a giant tsunami that mixed Fe2+-rich deep waters into the Fe2+-poor shallow waters and washed debris into coastal areas, 2) heating that caused partial evaporation of surface ocean waters and likely a short-term increase in weathering and erosion on land, and 3) injection of P from vaporization of the S2 bolide. Strata immediately above the S2 impact event contain abundant siderites, which are associated with organic matter and exhibit light and variable δ13Ccarb values. This is consistent with microbial iron cycling in the wake of the impact event. Thus, the S2 impact likely had regional, if not global, positive and negative effects on life. The tsunami, atmospheric heating, and darkness would likely have decimated phototrophic microbes in the shallow water column. However, the biosphere likely recovered rapidly, and, in the medium term, the increase in nutrients and iron likely facilitated microbial blooms, especially of iron-cycling microbes.

Qualitative Geochemical Analysis of the 2004 Indian Ocean Giant Tsunami Deposits Excavated at Seungko Mulat Located in Aceh Besar of Indonesia Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy

Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) was employed to characterize the geochemical signatures layer by layer of 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami deposits in Seungko Mulat Village, Aceh Province, Indonesia. In the LIBS experimental setup, a Nd-YAG laser beam is directed towards the deposit samples, and the resulting atomic emission lines from the laser-induced plasma are captured using a spectrometer. Our analysis reveals terrestrial indicators (Fe), heavy metals (Cu, Cr, Co, Cd), and increased emission intensity of Mg, Ca, Al, K, Si, Ba, N, and O in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami layers. The emission intensity ratios of several elements in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami deposit layers, namely Ca/Ti, Si/Ti, and K/Ti, unveil notable disparities among the elements evaluated. This indicates the possibility of utilizing these ratios as reliable geochemical markers to differentiate the layer by layer of tsunami deposits. LIBS surpasses XRF in detecting nearly all elements simultaneously and identifying both light elements and specific heavy metals (Ba, Cu, Cr, Co, Cd, Pb, Ni, V, W), exceeding XRF's detection capabilities. This study emphasizes the effectiveness of LIBS as an advanced optical technique, offering speed and promise in analyzing layer-by-layer geochemical markers of the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami deposits in Seungko Mulat Village.

The Hakcheon-Chogok Megaturbidite in the Miocene Pohang-Youngduk Basin, SE Korea: high-gradient slope failure probably triggered by a giant tsunami wave

The Hakcheon-Chogok Megaturbidite in the Miocene Pohang-Youngduk Basin, SE Korea: high-gradient slope failure probably triggered by a giant tsunami wave

Super-long-range distributed vibration sensor based on the polarimetric forward-transmission of light.

Undersea earthquake-triggered giant tsunamis pose significant threats to coastal areas, spanning thousands of kilometers and affecting populations, ecosystems, and infrastructure. To mitigate their impact, monitoring seismic activity in underwater environments is crucial. In this study, we propose a new, to the best of our knowledge, approach for monitoring vibrations in submarine optical cables. By detecting vibration-induced polarization rotation, our dual-wavelength fiber-optic sensing system enables precise measurement of acoustic/vibration amplitude, frequency, and position. As a proof of concept, a double-ended forward-transmission distributed fiber-optic vibration sensor was demonstrated with a single vibration source with a sensitivity of 3.4 mrad/µε at 100 Hz (20 m fiber on PZT), limit of detection of 1.7 pε/Hz1/2 at 100 Hz, sensing range of 121.5 km without an optical amplifier, spatial resolution of 5 m, and position error as small as 34 m. The vibration frequency range tested is from 0.01 to 100 Hz. The sensing system has several advantages, including elegant setup, noise mitigation, and super-long sensing distance.

MODELLING OF DEBRIS MOTION DRIVEN BY TSUNAMI WAVE BREAKING

When a giant tsunami approaches onshore, offshore vessels and other floating objects move following the current of the tsunami. Some of the waterborne debris are transported to tsunami inundation areas and those debris impact buildings. For evaluations of debris impact loads, types of debris having the potential to impact and damage the structures are identified by considering debris impact hazard region. According to ASCE7-22, the debris impact hazard region shall be determined by the empirical model proposed by Naito et al. (2014) in a simple manner. Furthermore, numerical debris transport modelling using massless tracers also shall be permitted to use for the determination. On the other hand, numerical debris tracking (nDT) modellings which solve the equation of motion of debris have been developed (e.g., Kihara and Kaida, 2019). In this study, a surface roller modelling is incorporated into the nDT model of Kihara and Kaida (2019) to simulate debris motions driven by tsunami wave breaking. To validate the model, simulations of hydraulic experiments focusing on the motion of offshore debris reported by the Nuclear Regulation Authority (NRA) of Japan are carried out (Oda et al., 2021).

Evaluation of Geochemical Signature in Soil Sampled from a 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami-stricken Region in Aceh Province Located in the Western Part of Indonesia Using Scanning Electron Microscopy–Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX) Spectroscopy and Its Compatibility with X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) Measurement

Chemical elements in soil samples collected from the area struck by the massive Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 Dec 2004, were identified using scanning electron microscopy–energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX) to find out potential candidates for the geochemical signature of the 2004 Indian Ocean giant tsunami. All tsunami-affected soils were collected from three areas in Aceh Province, Indonesia, the worst stricken region by the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. SEM analysis showed that the damaged soil samples exhibited smaller particles and an inhomogeneous particle size distribution, which could be attributed to dissolved chemical element sedimentation after flooding by tsunami saltwater. Moreover, our findings revealed that the tsunami-affected soil samples contain many chemical elements – including marine signatures (Na, Ca, Mg, K, Al, and Si), terrestrial sources (Ti and Fe), and organic components (C and O). Organic elements detected as oxygen (O) dominated those impacted soils from the Aceh region, accounting for more than half of all samples, followed by carbon (C) and silica (Si). Furthermore, the concentration ratio of a series of elements in those impacted soils – namely, Si/Ti, Si/K, and Fe/Ti – demonstrates values that are exclusively different among the various elements evaluated in this work. The distinguishing difference in the concentration ratios of the elements matches well with X-ray fluorescence (XRF) measurement results. Therefore, the concentration ratios of the elements are good geochemical signatures of marine inundation for identifying the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami soil samples in Aceh Province, Indonesia.

Analysis of the Extreme Tsunami Risk to Sanya New Airport in the South China Sea

The Manila trench in the South China Sea (SCS) is identified as being most susceptible to the future major earthquakes. Once a submarine earthquake occurs, the coastal areas and ocean engineering projects around SCS will be affected. Based on the Sanya new airport project, this paper presents an analysis of tsunami impacts to the project region. A series of numerical simulations of tsunami are carried out and compared under different magnitudes of earthquakes. An extreme tsunami induced by a giant earthquake of M9.3 is simulated and analyzed in detail. The tsunami propagation scenarios and surface elevation in the region are presented. The inundation map and flow velocity distribution are analyzed. The impacts of this human project to the coasts are discussed by comparing tsunami wave height with and without the artificial island. According to the numerical results and relevant analysis, the giant tsunami will have great impacts to the artificial island.

Giant tsunami monitoring, early warning and hazard assessment

Giant tsunami monitoring, early warning and hazard assessment

Geochemistry study of soil affected catastrophically by tsunami disaster triggered by 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake using a fourth harmonics (λ = 266 nm) Nd:YAG laser induced breakdown spectroscopy

In this work, laser induced breakdown spectroscopy (LIBS) analysis of the soil samples collected from Aceh, a place in Indonesia worst affected by 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, was conducted. In the LIBS experimental system, a high energy pulsed laser beam was focused on the tsunami affected soil samples and the atomic emission lines, originating from the laser induced plasma were recorded using locally developed laser induced breakdown spectrometer. Our results show that the concentrations of many elements especially terrestrial markers, namely titanium, iron, and carbonate marker such as magnesium, are higher in the tsunami-affected samples than that in the unaffected samples collected from the same neighborhood. The quantification of Ti, Fe and Mg were carried out using Ti II 334.94, Fe I 438.35, and Mg I 277.98 nm atomic transition lines respectively by drawing the calibration curve by preparing the samples of known concentrations in unaffected soil matrix. In order to ensure accurate quantification, the local thermal equilibrium of the laser-induced plasma was verified using Mc Writher criterion, for which the plasma temperature was estimated using linearized Boltzmann plot for six iron atomic transition lines and the electron number density in the plasma was estimated using Stark broadened Fe I 540.4 nm atomic lines. The estimated temperature and electron number density of the laser induced plasma are 9642 K and 3.5 × 10 16 cm −3 respectively. The concentrations of Ti, Fe and Mg in tsunami unaffected soil are 0.09, 3.2 and 0.02 w/w% and in tsunami affected soil are 0.14, 7.9 and 0.048 w/w% respectively. These values are in good agreement with XRF data. The elemental ratios extracted from LIBS signal intensity revealed that LIBS emission intensity ratios of several elements, such as Si/Ti, Al/Ti and Sr/Ba are potential candidates as the distinctive geochemical signature for identification the soil impacted and unimpacted by the 2004 Indian Ocean giant tsunami. The advantage of using LIBS for the elemental analysis is that the sample can be analyzed in its pristine form without any need cumbersome sample preparation method, which has the risk of bringing in external additives through chemicals used for the sample preparation. Other advantages of LIBS technique are that the analysis can be in situ and can be carried out remotely.

Analytical solution for time-dependent shoreline position response to the tectonic recovery process in the Sendai Plain, Japan, after the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake

The 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake on March 11, 2011 triggered not only giant tsunami waves, but also caused significant land subsidence followed by land rise in the Sendai Coastal Plain areas. These impacts resulted in severe damages to the coastal infrastructure and induced coastal morphology changes along Japan's northeast coast. It was observed that the maximum downward deformation in the Sendai Coastal Plain was initially about - 0.3 m. Immediately after the earthquake, the land started to rise and it has already recovered back to its original position at some locations after 10 years. Thus, the high-quality measured beach profile data sets after the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake are valuable for exploring the impact of sea level rise (SLR) on shoreline position evolution, since the bed level change is inversely related to the sea level rise process. The data also provide a unique opportunity to evaluate the Equilibrium Beach Profile (EBP) theory and validate the Bruun concept. In the present study, a new simple analytical solution for time-dependent shoreline position response to the tectonic recovery process is developed based on the convolution method. The model results are able to predict the time-dependent shoreline evolution, including the maximum potential response and the characteristic erosion time scale at which the profile evolves towards a new equilibrium state.

Holocene coastal evolution, past tsunamis, and extreme wave event reconstructions using sediment cores obtained from the central coast of Hidaka, Hokkaido, Japan

Investigating coastal areas far from tsunami sources can improve the understanding of the magnitude and origin of giant tsunamis. However, distinguishing tsunami deposits from extreme storm deposits is more challenging since the layers are less prominent compared to the those in the locations near a tsunami source. This study reconstructed the Holocene coastal environments on the central coast of Hidaka, Hokkaido, ~250 km from the Kuril Trench. Sand layers induced by extreme waves were identified by examining the sea-level index points in the late to mid-Holocene by diatom-assemblage analysis through the combination of chemical analyses with the investigation of sediment cores. Detailed facies analyses on sediment cores obtained from several transects showed that sediment preservation differs according to the location of the cores relative to the ambient coastline. In the zone behind the beach ridge, the paleoenvironments changed from a saltmarsh formed by transgression to a swamp closed by a beach ridge formed by sea regression in the mid-Holocene. Conversely, the seaward zone indicated various environmental changes due to meandering rivers and the development of the beach ridge system due to sea regression. We found four volcanic ash layers and seven sand layers with clear basal contact with peat or organic mud. According to their sedimentological features, these sand layers were formed by tsunamis or storm surges; at least four of the sand layers are likely to be tsunami deposits, considering the ages of tsunami deposits in the surrounding region. Dramatic changes in the depositional environment associated with relative sea-level changes resulted in a short period of preservation of the sand layers. In addition, their distributions were limited, ranging from a few tens of meters to hundreds of meters from the beach ridge. Thus, in an area far from tsunami sources, the traces of extreme waves may be overlooked if the coastal evolutional process is not considered.

Giant tsunami from dino-killing asteroid impact revealed in fossilized ‘megaripples’

Giant tsunami from dino-killing asteroid impact revealed in fossilized ‘megaripples’

Tsunami Squares modeling of the 2007 Dayantang landslide generated waves considering the effects in slide/water interactions

Landslide tsunami in reservoirs can inflict serious consequences and they have aroused social concern worldwide. Herein, we introduce a historical reservoir tsunami that occurred on June 2007 in Shuibuya Reservoir, China. After a progressive failure over 20 days, the Dayantang slope with a volume of 3 million cubic meters slid into the Shuibuya Reservoir and spawned a giant tsunami that ran up ~50 m on the opposite shoreline and caused disastrous consequences. To model the 2007 tsunami, we apply a meshless numerical approach called ‘Tsunami Squares’ (TS) that takes into account the landslide/water interactions. TS simulates both the landslide and its generated tsunami and introduces ‘Push Ahead’ (PA) and ‘Drag Along’ (DA) accelerations to mimic the physical mechanics in the process. The accuracy and efficiency of TS method are verified by a well-designed landslide tsunami experiment that compares the observed wave dynamics with the ones simulated by TS and achieves an excellent match between the two. Landslide simulations indicate a maximum impact velocity of ~20 m/s and that the computed post-slide mass stopped on the near river bed with a shape coinciding with the field observations. Wave simulations present a large region of wave impacts and a maximum wave runup height of 52.9 m at the opposite bank facing the landslide scarp that is comparable to the observation (~50 m). Sensitivity analysis that compares the simulations with, and without, PA and DA accelerations is carried out both for the experimental wave and the 2007 one. This comparison indicates that TS simulations that do not include PA and DA can seriously underestimate landslide tsunami size. • Investigation of the geometric and geological conditions of the 2007 landslide tsunami • Update of the TS method by introducing PA and DA accelerations in landslide/water interactions • TS Model validation by a lab-scale wave experiment and application to the data-rich 2007 event • Sensitivity analysis of PA and DA accelerations that affects the landslide tsunami generation

Preliminary evaluation of chemical component in the 2004 indian ocean giant tsunami impacted soil using a Co2 Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS)

Preliminary evaluation of chemical component in soil impacted by 2004 Indian Ocean giant tsunami using LIBS has been carried out. The sampling of the tsunami impacted soil was carried out in several points in Aceh, Indonesia. In this study, the sample soil was pretreated to turn into pellets. The beam of a TEA CO2 laser (10.6 µm, 3 J, 200 ns, 10 Hz) is sent onto surface of pellet using focusing lens under air at atmospheric pressure for producing a plasma. The emission spectral lines from plasma that generated were discovered when testing with Optical Multichannel Analyzer (OMA) system. It shows many emission lines because of various elements could clearly be detected and be identified. It was found that both the tsunami impacted and unimpacted soil sample contain chemical signatures of tsunami event such as saltwater signal (Na), carbonate markers (Ca, Mg, Sr), terestrial markers (Fe, Mn, Si Ti, Ba), and other heavy metal elements. However, it is found that emission intensities of the spectral lines are far higher for the tsunami impacted soil samples compared to the case of tsunami unimpacted soil. The qualitative observation finding implies that the chemical elements such as calcium (Ca), then followed by magnesium (Mg), and sodium (Na) are good candidate for chemical proxies of tsunami event. Since the measurement allows to simultaneously observe these elements in a single measurement, thus LIBS is a potential, simultaneous, efficient, and versatile spectroscopic technique not only for analyzing chemical component in soil affected by the tsunami but also to identify the tsunami impacted soil from the impacted soilThe first section in your paper.

Tsunami-generated magnetic fields have primary and secondary arrivals like seismic waves

A seafloor geomagnetic observatory in the northwest Pacific has provided very long vector geomagnetic time-series. It was found that the time-series include significant magnetic signals generated by a few giant tsunami events including the 2011 Tohoku Tsunami. Here we report that the tsunami-generated magnetic fields consist of the weak but first arriving field, and the strong but second arriving field—similar to the P- and S-waves in seismology. The latter field is a result of coupling between horizontal particle motions of the conductive seawater and the vertical component of the background geomagnetic main field, which have been studied well so far. On the other hand, the former field stems from coupling between vertical particle motions and the horizontal component of the geomagnetic main field parallel to tsunami propagation direction. The former field has been paid less attention because horizontal particle motions are dominant in the Earth’s oceans. It, however, was shown that not only the latter but also the former field is significant especially around the magnetic equator where the vertical component of the background magnetic field vanishes. This implies that global tsunami early warning using tsunami-generated magnetic fields is possible even in the absence of the background vertical geomagnetic component.

Resistance and Social Movement for the Rejection of Gold Mining on Mount Tumpang Pitu Banyuwangi

Mount Tumpang Pitu is a national park and protected forest that functions as a buffer area, a source of water absorption and is inhabited by many habitats, as well as other functions as a natural fortress that can withstand the wind, and giant Tsunami in 1994. The benefits of Mount Tumpang Pitu and the surrounding mountains are vital for the local community. In 2005, the local government of Banyuwangi aimed to extend grant gold mining activities for a mining investor. The government's policy that did not involve the public in a participatory manner in granting mining permits, triggered the community to carry out a movement to reject the gold mining activities. The rejection movement is also a response to disaster concerns, and the impacts that has been felt by the people there. This rejection movement fits to the theory of New Social Movement, considering by the characteristics of its movement. However, the Comprehensive Perspective of Social Movement Theory from McAdam et al., proves that this movement is still weak and accordingly difficult to achieve its goals.

The Alaska Convergent Margin Backstop Splay Fault Zone, a Potential Large Tsunami Generator Between the Frontal Prism and Continental Framework

AbstractThe giant tsunami that swept the Pacific from Alaska to Antarctica in 1946 was generated along one of three Alaska Trench instrumentally recorded aftershock areas following great and giant earthquakes. Aftershock areas were investigated during the past decade with multibeam bathymetry, ocean bottom seismograph wide‐angle seismic, reprocessed legacy, and new seismic reflection images. Summarized and updated here are previous papers and additional data. Tectonic structures collocated with aftershock area boundaries indicate possible lengths of rupture in future great earthquakes. NE aftershock area boundaries relate to subducted lower plate structures whereas the SW zone upper plate retains Beringian structural relicts. The lower to middle slope transition separating a stronger continental framework rock from a weaker accreted prism occurs along splay fault zones previously interpreted as backstops in seismic images. Damage zones along splay faults are generally 1‐km‐wide dipping typically 21°. Splays form slip paths from the plate interface to the seafloor much shorter than the 3–4° dipping plate interface beneath the frontal prism. Associated seafloor vent structures indicate overpressured fluids at depth. Splay fault dip and its rigid hanging wall impart greater seafloor uplift than the accreted prism per unit of slip making them effective tsunami generators. Backstop splay fault zones (BSFZs) run along the entire Alaska Trench. Beneath the frontal prism, active bend faults add rugosity to the plate interface and km high relief is commonly imaged in reprocessed legacy and new seismic data. The 1946 Unimak great (M8.6) earthquake epicenter is located near the BSFZ.

Lesson learn earthquake disaster in Pidie Jaya Aceh in 2016 to realize a disaster-resistant community

Indirectly, to protect and achieve prosperity, national security is needed as the freedom for the state, society, and citizens from all the threats. Natural disasters is one of non-military threat that is very real in the territory of the United State of the Republic of Indonesia. Casualties, economic, social, environmental damage, and psychological impacts caused by the disaster are real conditions occur as a result of this non-military threat. The geographical position allows the threat of natural disasters due to the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity. This is a natural process always occurs in the cycle of life on earth. After an earthquake 9,1 magnitude followed a giant tsunami wave that devastated the city of Banda Aceh on December 26, 2004, an earthquake 6,5 magnitude occurred again which rocked the Pidie Jaya Regency area, Aceh Province on Wednesday, December 7, 2016, at 05.03.36 am. This research aims to study the management disaster during Pidie earthquake especially in emergency response. The results of this research are to make the earthquake in Pidie Jaya District in 2016 as a Lesson Learned for all parties, especially in Pidie Jaya District and in general, for all Indonesian people to form disaster-resilient communities who have awareness of the potential disasters that will be faced to contribute to the condition of National Security.

Earthquake-triggered landslides and mudflows: Was this the wave that engulfed Ancient Helike?

The destruction of Ancient Helike in 373 BC as reported by ancient Greek and Roman writers is inconsistent with modern evidence on the geological context. The classical view of a strong earthquake, similar to the 1817 M = 6.6 earthquake and followed by a giant tsunami wave that permanently inundated the ruined city does not stand up to modern scrutiny. Evidence for co-seismic slip on the Helike Fault at that time and for a corresponding tsunami have already been shown to be lacking, and the archaeological evidence shows that part of the site was reoccupied within 40 years. New observations on outcrops, excavated sites, and boreholes show that at least two mudflow deposits several metres thick of slightly gravelly mud overlie 4th c. BC archaeological remains on the Katourlas fan. Upstream, landslides are common in the 4 km2 river basin and could have dammed the ephemeral Katourlas River. Relics of this dam are still recognised in the riverbed as a knickpoint. Temporary damming of rivers by earthquake-triggered landslides is a common phenomenon in northern Peloponnese. The destruction of Ancient Helike appears to have been a localised non-linear cascading series of disasters, with a strong earthquake followed by a destructive mudflow generated by breaching of a landslide-dammed lake in the Katourlas basin. Historical records of flooding from the west may record another landslide dam followed by a more watery flood in the Selinous River. We propose that it was mudflows and floods from inland rather than a tsunami from the sea that contributed to the final destruction of Helike.

Sand deposits reveal great earthquakes and tsunamis at Mexican Pacific Coast

Globally, instrumentally based assessments of tsunamigenic potential of subduction zones have underestimated the magnitude and frequency of great events because of their short time record. Historical and sediment records of large earthquakes and tsunamis have expanded the temporal data and estimated size of these events. Instrumental records suggests that the Mexican Subduction earthquakes produce relatively small tsunamis, however historical records and now geologic evidence suggest that great earthquakes and tsunamis have whipped the Pacific coast of Mexico in the past. The sediment marks of centuries old-tsunamis validate historical records and indicate that large tsunamigenic earthquakes have shaken the Guerrero-Oaxaca region in southern Mexico and had an impact on a bigger stretch of the coast than previously suspected. We present the first geologic evidence of great tsunamis near the trench of a subduction zone previously underestimated as potential source for great earthquakes and tsunamis. Two sandy tsunami deposits extend over 1.5 km inland of the coast. The youngest tsunami deposit is associated with the 1787 great earthquake, M 8.6, producing a giant tsunami that poured over the coast flooding 500 km alongshore the Mexican Pacific coast and up to 6 km inland. The oldest event from a less historically documented event occurred in 1537. The 1787 earthquake, and tsunami and a probable predecessor in 1537, suggest a plausible recurrence interval of 250 years. We prove that the common believe that great tsunamis do not occur on the Mexican Pacific coast cannot be sustained.