GHG Emission Inventories Research Articles

Uncovering divergences and potential gaps in local greenhouse gases emissions accounting and aggregation

Due to the contribution of cities to fight climate change, approaches and methodologies for GHG emissions inventories have multiplied; research is growing and numerous initiatives support local authorities in developing their local emissions inventories. The complexity of cities and the lack of data make necessary simplifications and assumptions in inventorying GHG emissions. Despite significant progresses in the compilation of inventories, there are still limitations and uncertainties on aggregation approaches. Therefore, it becomes crucial disclosing the methodologies underlying any emissions accounting frameworks, together with any simplifications and assumptions, with the aim to produce reliable support on local measures and data- driven decision-making in the form of a trustworthy emissions inventory. This study aims at identifying divergences and potential gaps in two approaches for GHG emission inventories at local level complementing the results of previous studies. It is intended as exemplificative of potential issues and limitations occurring in emissions accounting and aggregation. The two approaches are EDGAR (Emissions Database for Global Atmospheric Research), in place for the GHSL (Global Human Settlement Layer Urban Centre Database) (GHS-UCDB R2019A) and the BEI (Baseline Emission Inventory) approach developed within the Covenant of Mayors initiative. The main limitations uncovered here feature disagreements on spatial and time coverage, on the emissions sources and allocation and the types of emissions considered. Results show that despite the diverse approaches, data is comparable. Therefore, to identify and correct inconsistencies and to ensure the quality of emission inventories available to decision makers, analysis and consistent comparisons between results originating from different and independent methodologies are essential.

Achievement of SDGS globally in biodiversity conservation and reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by using green energy and maintaining forest cover

The global partnership for sustainable development is well-positioned to combat climate change and its impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on climate, oceans, marine resources, forests, biodiversity, and land degradation. This study has assessed and evaluated the status of global forests and biodiversity, greenhouse emissions, and global energy perspectives, synthesizing track progress on goals 13 and 15 targets focusing on climate change trends, forest cover, and biodiversity status. Review and analysis of global forest resource and biodiversity assessment, GHG emission inventories, verification of CO2 measurement, statistical review of world energy and renewables contributions to reduction of GHG emissions, and applying quantitative data on environmental change to identify impact and implications showed that the targeted SDG goals are able to address the issues needed to build climate resilience: maintaining forests and biodiversity, achieving zero emissions, and adopting renewables. Forests, which cover 31% of the world's land surface, provide habitat, clean air and water, and help mitigate climate change. However, 13 million hectares are lost each year, resulting in the desertification of 3.6 billion hectares. The world's tree stock has decreased slightly due to a decrease in forest area, with 8% of 8,300 animal breeds extinct and 22% on the verge of extinction, highlighting the importance of sustainable ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation. Global GHG emissions are expected to rise slightly in 2021 to 8 GtCO2e, comparable to or exceeding 2019 levels, and global temperatures could rise over 1.5°C by 2030. Human activities, including greenhouse gas emissions, contribute to global warming, with surface temperatures rising 1.1°C between 2011 and 2020. Mitigation policies expand, but warming may exceed 1.5°C by 2030. The world faces challenges in achieving climate change goals, necessitating increased ambition and implementation. Integrating climate action and sustainable development using renewable energy sources like bioenergy, solar, geothermal, hydropower, and wind is the most effective approach.

Greenhouse gas emission inventory of drinking water treatment plants and case studies in China

The Chinese government claimed to reach carbon dioxide emissions peaking by 2030 and achieve carbon neutralization by 2060. In this context, it's meaningful and urgent to estimate GHG emissions amount in every sectors. The growing concern about reducing GHG emissions has been shared by many water companies. This work aims to identify and estimate GHG emissions from the activities of drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs). According to the GHG protocol, the GHG emission inventory of DWTPs covers the sources of fossil fuel combustion, reservoir emissions, electricity and heat supply, use of chemicals and additives, disposal of waste, transportation, operation and maintenance. The tool was tested by nine DWTPs, which had an average GHG emission intensity of 0.225 kg CO2-eq/m3. The GHG emission intensities range from 0.167 kg CO2-eq/m3 to 0.272 kg CO2-eq/m3. The main source of GHG emissions is electricity supply, followed by the use of chemicals and additives. According to the average emission intensity, the estimated total amount of GHG emissions from DWTPs in China is about 1.82 × 107 t/a, corresponding to 0.15 % of the total GHG emission in China. The proposed GHG sources and emissions help decision-makers and DWTPs companies estimate GHG emissions more accurately and undertake GHG reduction measures.

Municipal emission pathways and economic performance toward net-zero emissions: A case study of Nakhon Ratchasima municipality, Thailand

The transition to net-zero emissions (NZEs) in developing countries is challenging and requires the immediate adoption of comprehensive climate policy packages, strong collaboration among all sectors and stakeholders, and timely financial and technological assistance for developing economies. This research aims to analyze and evaluate the pathways to realize an NZE scheme at the municipality level. Nakhon Ratchasima (NR) Municipality, Thailand, is selected as the case study for this research. The Global Protocol for Community-Scale GHG Emission Inventories (GPC) is applied as the robust framework to assess the city’s GHG emission profile. A mathematical forecasting model and the participatory multicriteria decision-making (MCDM) approach were adopted to support evidence-based local climate action planning based on four different scenarios: the business-as-usual (BAU), nationally determined contribution (NDC), carbon neutrality (CN), and NZE scenarios. The roles of stakeholders at the local community level across all sectors in mitigation actions and investment costs were investigated, and cost-effectiveness was evaluated to understand the economic performance of the adoption and implementation of local climate policy packages. The results indicate that by employing solely conventional technologies, a residential city that is also a hub for trade and land transportation will be unable to achieve its net-zero targets. It is imperative to seek additional low-carbon businesses and decarbonizing technologies that accompany substantial investments. According to the case of NR Municipality, the implementation costs to attain the NZE target by 2050 would range between 974.40 and 4.131.96 million USD. A pivotal driver of the municipal NZE pathway is the successful mobilization private sector investments to propel the transition toward climate-friendly technologies. Cost-effectiveness analysis significantly bolsters the municipality’s transitional plan preparation, holistically encompassing economic, social, and environmental considerations. By preparing these aspects together, we ensure a smooth and equitable transition to net zero, avoid conflicts and economic harm and leave no one behind. This approach ensures a harmonious balance between a net-zero future, economic growth, and environmentally friendly living for all.

Development of sectorial and territorial information system to monitor GHG emissions as local and regional climate governance tool: Case study in Valencia (Spain)

Regional and local decision-makers need high quality GHG emission inventories to invest efficiently available resources in climate change mitigation measures. Nevertheless, decision-makers lack of tools to achieve GHG emissions inventories with enough rigor, accuracy and completeness. Thus, a territorial and sectorial information system (SITE) has been developed to monitor GHG emissions as local and regional climate governance tool. This system combines the advantages of both, top-down and bottom-up approaches, to achieve an innovative hybrid approach to account and manage efficiently GHG emissions. The implementation of SITE in Valencia region (Spain) as a case study has quantified 163 indicators in 542 municipalities. Regional gross GHG emissions in 2019 were 30 Mt. CO2 while the fixation was 6 Mt. CO2 eq. 1.8% municipalities emit 34% of total emissions. 34% municipalities fix more than they emit. Finally, sectoral analysis demonstrates that only 20% indicators are responsible for 85% of total emissions.

Energy greenhouse gas emission inventory in Batu City

The development of the tourism sector in Batu City is in line with the development of non-agricultural activities in Batu City that dominates 66.7% of Batu City’s land use pattern. This pattern is related to the energy demand in Batu City and contributes to the increasing GHG emissions from the energy sector. The energy sector contributes 24-25% of GHG emissions and it will increase along with further development of activities. The GHG emission inventory is an important step related to GHG emission reduction, and, due to the uncertainty of GHG emission distribution, the inventory was based on the sources of emission. The main purpose of this research is to make an inventory of the amount of GHG emission from the energy sector in Batu City from 3 main emission sources in Batu, namely transportation, commercial, and household. The analytical method used is the Tier 1 approach using a database of energy consumption and the number of activities as an emission source. The results show that the total amount of GHG emissions from the energy sector in Batu City is 2,562,159,822,007.89 kg/year with an average increase of 0.75% per year and is dominated by emission sources from the household sector. The average increase in GHG emissions from the transportation sector is 58.83% with a significant increase in 2015. In the commercial sector, the average annual increase in GHG emissions is 3.83%, and the household sector—as the largest energy consumer—has an average increase in GHG emissions each year of 0.75%.

The mitigation strategy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions from household activities in Medan city

The activities of several sectors cause an increase in the amount of greenhouse gas emissions. Household activities also produce greenhouse gas emissions, mainly from cooking, electricity use, solid waste, and wastewater. The dominant greenhouse gas emissions from household activities are CO2, CH4, and N2O. This study aims to inventory greenhouse gas emissions from household activities in Medan City and determine several mitigation scenarios in reducing greenhouse gas emissions from household activities. The method used in calculating greenhouse gas emissions is the IPCC method. The results of an inventory of GHG emissions from household activities in Medan City for energy consumption (LPG and electricity) are 1.16 million tons CO2e/year, household solid waste is 36801.5 tons CO2e/year, and household wastewater is 198723.12 tons CO2e/year. The scenario of replacing LPG with an induction stove can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 21.08%, the design of using solar panels on the roof can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 30.19%, the composting scenario can reduce GHG emissions by an average of 0.38% and utilization CH4 from household wastewater as electrical energy can reduce GHG emissions by 1.23%.

Performing accountability: face-to-face account-giving in multilateral climate transparency processes

ABSTRACT Securing accountability of states for their climate actions is a continuing challenge within multilateral climate politics. This article analyses how novel, face-to-face, account-giving processes for developing countries, referred to as ‘Facilitative Sharing of Views’, are functioning within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and what these processes help to shed light on. We analyse the nature and scope of the ‘answerability’ being generated within these novel processes, including what state-to-state questioning and responses focus on, and what ‘performing’ accountability in this manner delivers within multilateral climate politics. We find that a limited number of countries actively question each other within the FSV process, with a primary focus on sharing information about the technical and institutional challenges of establishing domestic ‘measuring, reporting and verification’ systems and, to lesser extent, mitigation actions. Less attention is given to reporting on support. A key aim is to facilitate learning, both from the process and from each other. Much effort is expended on legitimizing the FSV process in anticipation of its continuation in adapted form under the 2015 Paris Agreement. We conclude by considering implications of our analysis. Key policy insights We analyse developing country engagement in novel face-to-face account-giving processes under the UNFCCC Analysis of four sessions of the ‘Facilitative Sharing of Views’ reveals a focus on horizontal peer-to-peer learning States question each other more on GHG emission inventories and domestic MRV systems and less on mitigation and support We find that limited time and capacity to engage, one-off questioning rather than a dialogue, and lack of recommended follow-up actions risks generating ‘ritualistic’ answerability Such account-giving also intentionally sidesteps contentious issues such as responsibility for ambitious and fair climate action but may still help to build trust Much effort is expended on ‘naming and praising’ participant countries and legitimizing the process

Huella de carbono: emisiones de GEI por uso del sistema de iluminación de la Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental de la Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, Lima-Perú

El objetivo general de este estudio de investigación es contribuir a establecer parcialmente la Línea Base de la Huella de Carbono por el uso de los Sistemas de Iluminación en los ambientes de las edificaciones de la Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental (FIA) de la Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería (UNI), en el desarrollo de las actividades académicas, gestión y de apoyo. Para lo cual se establecieron los objetivos específicos: Identificar las fuentes de emisión indirecta de GEI, estimar las emisiones indirectas de GEI que provienen de la generación de electricidad de origen externo (Alcance 2.) y preparar el informe del inventario de GEI correspondientes. Las universidades y en especial las Facultades relacionadas a la Ingeniería Ambiental tienen la responsabilidad relevante de contribuir a la sostenibilidad ambiental a través de la formación académica de profesionales, con investigaciones y acciones directas al respecto; las cuales servirán académicamente para replicar las buenas prácticas en otras facultades, universidades y sectores. Esta contribución está alineada con las acciones de mitigación conformantes de las ‘Contribuciones Nacionalmente Determinadas’ (NDC), que constituyen el compromiso del Perú para reducir sus emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero al año 2030, en el marco del Acuerdo de París. La sociedad moderna desarrolla gran cantidad de actividades con el uso de los sistemas eléctricos, según la IEEE a nivel mundial el 66% de la electricidad es generada por combustibles fósiles y el 16% de la electricidad mundial es consumida en sistemas de iluminación; en el Perú según el Ministerio de Energía y Minas (MINEM), aproximadamente el 35% de la energía primaria (después de la transformación y/o descontadas las pérdidas) es destinada a la generación eléctrica, de la cual el consumo energía por la iluminación en los hogares es de 19% del total de la factura eléctrica, en el sector público este porcentaje se eleva al 20% y en el sector comercial hasta el 25%. El informe del inventario de GEI se ha realizado según la Norma ISO 14064-1. La metodología de cuantificación aplicada es la combinación de medición y cálculo. Los cálculos basados en datos de las actividades de GEI, datos de las horas de consumo de energía eléctrica y las mediciones directas de consumo intermitente de energía por los sistemas de iluminación, multiplicado por el Factor de Emisión (FE) de GEI. El año base considerado es 2018, determinándose el inventario de emisiones indirectas de GEI que provienen de la generación de electricidad de origen externo (Alcance 2) por uso del Sistema de iluminación de la Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental de la Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería, en las actividades académicas, de gestión y apoyo, de 63.169 tonCO2e. Siendo el mayor consumo por la actividad académica directa (aulas, laboratorios y biblioteca) 41.18 %. Una emisión per cápita de 0.061 tonCO2e/estudiante y 0.052 tonCO2e/usuario, así como un promedio de 0.042 tonCO2e/lámpara.

A framework for developing and projecting GHG emission inventory and preparing mitigation plan: A case study of Delhi City, India

To provide a framework for a systematic study to address the issues of GHG emissions, City of Delhi was selected. The study employs state-of-the-art analytical techniques to develop GHG emission inventory, its forecasting and preparing mitigation plan. The total carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) emission was estimated at 41.26 million tonnes (Mt.) for the year 2014. The major contributors were power plants (46.8%), vehicles (29.7%), municipal solid waste burning (7.6%) and domestic cooking (6%). To achieve a continuous reduction, targets were set for two phases in the years, 2022 and 2030. The emissions were projected by considering growth in population, GDP, vehicles on the road and other activities; 63.64 (year 2022) and 79.19 (year 2030) Mt. tCO2e. The electricity consumption showed the highest increase followed by vehicles. Based on emission intensity (ratio of emission quantity to GDP), the target emission in the year 2030 was 54.74 Mt. tCO2e. The control-plan primarily comprised use of renewable sources, energy efficient devices and introduction of electric vehicles. Electricity generation by renewable sources (40% by 2030) could result in a reduction of 25.6 Mt. tCO2e (32% of tCO2e). It is shown systematic emission estimates and mitigation planning can achieve the target emission.

GHG and black carbon emission inventories from Mezquital Valley: The main energy provider for Mexico Megacity

The greenhouse gases and black carbon emission inventory from IPCC key category Energy was accomplished for the Mezquital Valley, one of the most polluted regions in Mexico, as the Mexico City wastewater have been continuously used in agricultural irrigation for more than a hundred years. In addition, thermoelectric, refinery, cement and chemistry industries are concentrated in the southern part of the valley, near Mexico City. Several studies have reported air, soil, and water pollution data and its main sources for the region. Paradoxically, these sources contaminate the valley, but boosted its economic development. Nevertheless, no research has been done concerning GHG emissions, or climate change assessment. This paper reports inventories performed by the 1996 IPCC methodology for the baseline year 2005. Fuel consumption data were derived from priority sectors such as electricity generation, refineries, manufacturing & cement industries, transportation, and residential use. The total CO2 emission result was 13,894.9Gg, which constituted three-quarters of Hidalgo statewide energy category. The principal CO2 sources were energy transformation (69%) and manufacturing (19%). Total black carbon emissions were estimated by a bottom-up method at 0.66Gg. The principal contributor was on-road transportation (37%), followed by firewood residential consumption (26%) and cocked brick manufactures (22%). Non-CO2 gas emissions were also significant, particularly SO2 (255.9Gg), which accounts for 80% of the whole Hidalgo State emissions. Results demonstrated the negative environmental impact on Mezquital Valley, caused by its role as a Megacity secondary fuel and electricity provider, as well as by the presence of several cement industries.

Greenhouse gas inventory of a state water and wastewater utility in Northeast Brazil

The growing concern about climate change and related greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) has been shared by many companies who are now involved in emission reduction efforts. In order to do this, it is necessary to first develop GHG emission inventories. The construction of inventories is not common practice in developing countries and among Brazilian water and wastewater companies, only four companies, among the top 25, have developed their GHG inventories, and none in the Northeast of the country. This paper aims to identify and estimate GHG emissions from the activities of a water utility, Empresa Baiana de Águas e Saneamento S.A (Embasa) in the State of Bahia during 2012. The method used for the inventory was the GHG Protocol proposed by World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and World Resources Institute (WRI), the most widely adopted method worldwide. In addition, the guidelines of IPPC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) were used to calculate emissions from wastewater treatment plants. It was found that the emissions resulting from sewage treatment (mostly carried out by anaerobic processes) constitute the largest source of GHG at the sanitation company studied, when considering the activities defined in this work. The assessment of GHG sources and emissions identified in this research can support proposals for reduction targets and benchmarking. The results form the basis for the incorporation of GHG reduction measures in the company's strategic planning as well as for integrating its sustainability report. The findings of this work can also help other companies to undertake GHG reduction measures.

Dynamics of energy sector and GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia

The energy sector is the main contributor to GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia. The tremendous growth of GHG emissions poses serious challenges for the Kingdom in terms of their reduction targets, and also the mitigation of the associated climate changes. The rising trend of population and urbanization affects the energy demand, which results in a faster rate of increase in GHG emissions. The major energy sector sources that contribute to GHG emissions include the electricity generation, road transport, desalination plants, petroleum refining, petrochemical, cement, iron and steel, and fertilizer industries. In recent years, the energy sector has become the major source, accounting for more than 90% of national CO2 emissions. Although a substantial amount of research has been conducted on renewable energy resources, a sustainable shift from petroleum resources is yet to be achieved. Public awareness, access to energy-efficient technology, and the development and implementation of a legislative framework, energy pricing policies, and renewable and alternative energy policies are not mature enough to ensure a significant reduction in GHG emissions from the energy sector. An innovative and integrated solution that best serves the Kingdom's long-term needs and exploits potential indigenous, renewable, and alternative energy resources while maintaining its sustainable development stride is essential.Policy relevanceThe main contributor to GHG emissions in Saudi Arabia is the energy sector that accounts for more than 90% of the national CO2 emissions. Tremendous growth of GHG emissions poses serious challenges for the Kingdom in their reduction and mitigating the associated climate changes. This study examines the changing patterns of different activities associated with energy sector, the pertinent challenges, and the opportunities that promise reduction of GHG emissions while providing national energy and economic security. The importance of achieving timely, sustained, and increasing reductions in GHG emissions means that a combination of policies may be needed. This study points to the long-term importance of making near- and medium-term policy choices on a well-informed, strategic basis. This analytical paper is expected to provide useful information to the national policy makers and other decision makers. It may also contribute to the GHG emission inventories and the climate change negotiations.

Analysis of China's Production- and Consumption-Based CO2Emission Inventories

Abstract: China, as the biggest GHG emitter and the largest developing country, has been urged by international society to take responsibilities for reducing GHG, especially in the post-Kyoto commitment period. Currently, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) assigns the responsibility to parties who produce the pollution, using the production-based GHG emissions inventories. In this article, we analyze the difference between China's production- and consumption-based emission inventories and conclude that consumption-based GHG emission inventories are preferred; as it is fair that whoever consumes the emission should pay for their consumption. In addition, in order to consider environmental justice, policy-makers should take both economic and administrative measures to support poor provinces for reducing CO2 emissions.

Development of Greenhouse Gas Estimation Method for a Local Government Level Using Traffic Demand Model

Abstract Greenhouse gas emissions have been an important issue in different countries because of their effects on global warming. The government has to organize greenhouse gas reduction measures suitable to regional characteristics by establishing annual implementation plans and comprehensive policies based on the UNFCCC. The transportation sector is one of the major contributors of air pollution; hence increasing need to estimate current and future traffic emissions precisely. Under these circumstances, a number of emission models have been developed recently. However, current methods of estimation cannot carry out effective analyses because it does not reflect vehicle movement characteristics. This study aims to present a new method for calculating road traffic emissions in Goyang city. A travel demand model is utilized to carry out GHG emission estimates according the traffic data (fleet composition, vehicle kilometers travelled, traffic intensity, road type, emission factors and speed). This study evaluates two approaches to estimate the road traffic emissions in Goyang City: Pollution-Emis and the Handbook of Emission Factors for Road Transport (HBEFA v.3.1) which is representative of the “average speed” and the “traffic situation” model types. The evaluation of results shows that the proposed emission estimation method may be a good practice if vigilant implementation of model inputs is observed.Keywords: GHG emission inventory, emission model, travel demand model, road traffic * 주저자 : 공주대학교 교통공학과 석사과정 ** 공저자 및 교신저자 : 국토연구원 국토인프라 연구본부 연구원 *** 공저자 : 공주대학교 건설환경공학부 도시·교통공학 교수 **** 공저자 : 서울대학교 건설환경종합연구소 연구교수† 논문접수일 : 2013년 6월 5일† 논문심사일 : 2013년 6월 12일† 게재확정일 : 2013년 6월 18일

A review of system boundaries of GHG emission inventories in waste management

Abstract The need to calculate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG emissions) has become more or less ubiquitous throughout the economy, both in public and private areas. As present, a diverse number of calculation methods are available for preparing GHG emission inventories. However, several questions remain unresolved since there is currently no uniformity regarding how to define ‘the waste management industry’. The present paper focuses on these problems. The objectives are: first, to provide an approach for setting up a GHG emission inventory for the waste management sector; and second, to consider the sensitive issue of setting system boundaries when establishing a GHG emission inventory and also to emphasise the considerable need for caution when doing so. The approach elaborated here is based on a comprehensive literature analysis and on a comparison of existing GHG emission calculation approaches, particularly with regard to the waste management sector. Since the issue of selecting system boundaries for establishing GHG emission inventories, particularly in the waste management sector, is a very special and difficult topic, it receives considerable attention in the present paper. This means that the system boundaries and interfaces with respect to three illustrative areas are considered in some depth. These areas are collection and transport, incineration and co-combustion, and biogas plants.

Carbon Footprint in Meat Production and Supply Chains

3 4 All human activities, including food production, are potentially sources of Green House Gases 5 emissions. Obtaining an inventory of GHG emissions from different production and supply 6 chains may help to mitigate these emissions. In this study three different beef meat production 7 and supply chain were analyzed, starting from the farms where the cattle is produced, two of 8 them in the United Kingdom – UK and one in the state of Rio Grande do Sul Brazil, named in 9 this study as UK1, UK2, and Brazil. GHG emissions were quantified throughout the production 10 and supply chains until the meat achieve the final market in the UK. Total emissions per kg of 11 bone-free meat available in London market, for UK1, UK2 and Brazil farms production and 12 supply chains, calculated in this study are 33.85, 33.99 and 45.17 kg of CO2e-100/kg, 13 respectively. 14 15

Transportation Greenhouse Gas Emissions and its Relationship with Urban Form, Transit Accessibility and Emerging Green Technologies: A Montreal Case Study

This research aims at estimating a GHG emission inventory at the household level using completely disaggregate trip data and taking into account all emitting modes. The impact of urban form (UF) and transit accessibility (TA) characteristics on household level GHG emissions is then quantified and compared to the impact of the introduction of emerging green technologies. Using a large and representative sample of household diaries, trip-level GHG emissions are estimated by combining different sources of data (origin-destination (OD) survey data, vehicle fleet characteristics, transit ridership data, etc.) and by using modelling tools (traffic assignment and GHGs models). Moreover, UF and TA indicators are developed and combined to generate neighbourhood typologies. A simultaneous equation modelling framework is then implemented to investigate the link between UF, TA, socio-demographics, and travel GHGs, taking into account the well known “self-selection” issue. The potential impact of land use and transit supply strategies with emerging green technological scenarios is then compared. Our findings are consistent with the literature, more specifically we have found that the built environment (BE) attributes are statistically significant (10% increase in density, transit accessibility and land-use mix, results in 3.5%, 5.8% and 2.5% reduction in GHG respectively), number of workers and retirees at the household level play an important role in the contribution to GHG emissions (102% increase by adding one worker and 51% decrease by adding a retiree to the household). Moreover, neighbourhood types represented by the combined effects of UF and TS have important effects on GHGs. Also it is found that by replacing transit fleet by electric trains and hybrid buses, the share of transit GHGs would decrease by 32%. With respect to the private motor-vehicle fleet, if current trends persist, the constant improvement of car fuel consumption economy would reduce car GHGs by 7%. According to our results, the two most efficient strategies to reduce GHGs at the regional and household level seem to be the continuous fuel-efficiency improvement of the private motor-vehicle fleet and the increase of transit accessibility.

Greenhouse gas emissions from Indian livestock

Livestock constitutes an integral component of Indian agriculture sector and also a major source of GHGs emissions. The study presents a detailed inventory of GHG emissions at district/state level from different age-groups, indigenous and exotic breed of different Indian livestock categories estimated using the recent census 2003 and country-specific emission coefficients based on IPCC guidelines. The total methane emission including enteric fermentation and manure management of livestock was estimated at 11.75 Tg/year for the year 2003. Enteric fermentation constitutes ~91 % of the total methane emissions from Indian livestock. Dairy buffalo and indigenous dairy cattle together contribute 60 % of the methane emissions. The total nitrous oxide emission from Indian livestock for the year 2003 is estimated at 1.42 Gg/year, with 86.1 % contribution from poultry. The total GHGs emission from Indian livestock is estimated at 247.2 Mt in terms of CO2 equivalent emissions. Although the Indian livestock contributes substantially to the methane budget, the per capita emission is only 24.23 kgCH4/animal/year. Using the remote sensing derived potential feed/fodder area available for livestock, the average methane flux was calculated as 74.4 kg/ha. The spatial patterns derived in GIS environment indicated the regions with high GHGs emissions that need to be focused subsequently for mitigation measures. The projected estimates indicate a likely increase of 40 % in methane emissions from buffalo population.

Cities reducing their greenhouse gas emissions

The study asks how well are cities doing in reducing their greenhouse gas emissions. Data from six cities with repeat GHG emission inventories for the period 2004–2009 is examined: Berlin, Boston, Greater Toronto, London, New York City and Seattle. All of the cities are reducing their per capita GHG emissions, primarily through changes to stationary combustion. On average the cities are reducing per capita emissions by 0.27t CO2e/capita per year; this is about the same average rate as the cities nation states, although the cities are reducing emissions faster in percentage terms.