German Internet Users Research Articles

Историческая память немцев о плене в СССР: опыт качественного анализа немецких интернет-ресурсов

The historical memory of a people plays a big role in their understanding of the past and present, and directly affects their perception of modern events. The Russian Federation, the entire Russian people, faced with an unprecedented barrage of open Russophobia in the West, with the attempts to abolish Russian culture throughout the world, are perplexed as to how this became possible at the beginning of the 21st century, in democratic countries that for many years were proud of their tolerance to other opinions and democratic governance. A qualitative sociological analysis of the historical memory of modern residents of Germany and Austria will help to answer this question, the specifics of which show that such Russophobic ideas were characteristic of the majority of Germans. The work uses the methodology of qualitative sociological research, content analysis of German comments to the films produced in Germany and Austria which are devoted to the analysis of the situation and fate of German prisoners of war who returned to their homeland in 1955–1956. The authors come to the conclusion that German historical memory is characterized by a complete disregard for cause-and-effect relationships, a high emotional intensity of memories, expressed in negative emotions: regret, sympathy for German prisoners of war, regardless of the degree of their guilt, ignoring the mistakes and miscalculations of the Nazi leadership during the war, especially during the Battle of Stalingrad. In the comments, German Internet users emphasized the sufferings of the prisoners of war, their moral and personal trauma and the difficulties of adapting to German society. The German historical consciousness clearly views Soviet captivity as a major catastrophe that brought grief and suffering to innocent people who found themselves dependent on cruel, vengeful barbarians. The Russian state and civil society are faced with the task of possibly correcting German historical memory, translating Soviet documentaries into German, publishing historical sources proving the genocide of the Soviet people during World War II, posting them on social networks and video hosting sites accessible to the Germans. The sociological data of the author's analysis of German historical memory proves that it is necessary to adjust Russian foreign policy, education and upbringing of the Russian younger generation to this reality, as well as to make changes in the Russian foreign policy.

Differences in access to privacy information can partly explain digital inequalities in privacy literacy and self-efficacy

ABSTRACT Users of digital technologies are still held legally responsible for managing their personal data. However, not all users have the same opportunities for privacy management as researchers find systematic sociodemographic differences in, for example, users’ privacy literacy and self-efficacy – two important predictors of privacy management. The present study argues that one reason for such digital inequalities is how easily people have access to privacy information in their everyday lives (e.g. through their profession or social contacts). Analysing data of a representative sample of German internet users (N = 3978) by means of a Bayesian structural equation model, we find that men and more educated persons report easier access to privacy information which, in turn, positively relates to both privacy literacy and self-efficacy. Older persons feel less confident about privacy protection while men and more highly educated persons have higher privacy literacy levels. In conclusion, the present study reveals that casual access to privacy information can be important in learning and being confident about privacy management, but it cannot fully explain digital inequalities in online privacy self-efficacy and literacy.

Who cares? How personal political characteristics are related to online counteractions against hate speech

Abstract Although many Internet users have encountered hate speech online, interventions against those incidents are unlikely. To learn more about online counteractions against hate speech, which we conceptualize as a form of online civic participation, we conducted an online survey representing adult German Internet users (N = 2,691). We investigated what distinguishes users who intervene against hate speech, focusing on associations between citizens’ prior counteractions and their personal political characteristics, their attributed responsibility for intervening against hate speech to social and political actors, and their institutional trust. Results indicate that especially Internet users’ personal political characteristics (e.g., internal political efficacy, political opinion leadership) as well as trust in regulative political institutions are positively associated with counteracting against online hate speech. While social media use and previous experience with counteractions increased the likelihood of users counteracting against hate speech, authoritarian attitudes and attributing responsibility for intervening to platform operators decreased it.

Development and Validation of the Need for Privacy Scale (NFP-S)

ABSTRACT The need for privacy has been gaining importance in various disciplines and areas of communication, including computer-mediated, interpersonal, and health communication. These disciplines require reliable measurement of the need for privacy across different contexts. We propose a theoretical concept of the need for privacy as a personality trait and develop a multi-dimensional scale. In Study 1, we developed and tested the Need for Privacy Scale (NFP-S) using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis (German internet users, n 1 = 3,278; n 2 = 1,226). The results support a second-order model with three first-order factors, i.e., informational, psychological, and physical need for privacy; social need for privacy was identified to be inherent to the three other dimensions and as such not a dimension on its own. The 12-item scale was validated with regard to loneliness, online privacy concerns, sex, online data protection and online information disclosure. In Study 2, we confirmed the factorial structure with a representative sample of N = 1,000 German internet users. We validated the scale with a self-assessment of the need for privacy, offline and online privacy concerns, online privacy literacy, social media usage, online data protection and social media self-disclosure, and sociodemographics.

Exploring Functions and Predictors of Digital Health Engagement Among German Internet Users: Survey Study.

Digital health engagement may serve many support functions, such as providing access to information; checking or evaluating one's state of health; and tracking, monitoring, or sharing health data. Many digital health engagement behaviors are associated with the potential to reduce inequalities in information and communication. However, initial studies suggest that health inequalities may persist in the digital realm. This study aimed to explore the functions of digital health engagement by describing how frequently respective services are used for a range of purposes and how these purposes can be categorized from the users' perspective. This study also aimed to identify the prerequisites for successfully implementing and using digital health services; therefore, we shed light on the predisposing, enabling, and need factors that may predict digital health engagement for different functions. Data were gathered via computer-assisted telephone interviews during the second wave of the German adaption of the Health Information National Trends Survey in 2020 (N=2602). The weighted data set allowed for nationally representative estimates. Our analysis focused on internet users (n=2001). Engagement with digital health services was measured by their reported use for 19 different purposes. Descriptive statistics showed the frequency with which digital health services were used for these purposes. Using a principal component analysis, we identified the underlying functions of these purposes. Using binary logistic regression models, we analyzed which predisposing factors (age and sex), enabling factors (socioeconomic status, health- and information-related self-efficacy, and perceived target efficacy), and need factors (general health status and chronic health condition) can predict the use of the distinguished functions. Digital health engagement was most commonly linked to acquiring information and less frequently to more active or interactive purposes such as sharing health information with other patients or health professionals. Across all purposes, the principal component analysis identified 2 functions. Information-related empowerment comprised items on acquiring health information in various forms, critically assessing one's state of health, and preventing health problems. In total, 66.62% (1333/2001) of internet users engaged in this behavior. Health care-related organization and communication included items on patient-provider communication and organizing health care. It was applied by 52.67% (1054/2001) of internet users. Binary logistic regression models showed that the use of both functions was determined by predisposing factors (female and younger age) and certain enabling factors (higher socioeconomic status) and need factors (having a chronic condition). Although a large share of German internet users engage with digital health services, predictors show that existing health-related disparities prevail in the digital realm. To make use of the potential of digital health services, fostering digital health literacy at different levels, especially in vulnerable groups, is key.

Crisis alert: (Dis)information selection and sharing in the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract High levels of threat and uncertainty characterize the onset of societal crises. Here, people are exposed to conflicting information in the media, including disinformation. Because individuals often base their news selection on pre-existing attitudes, the present study aims to examine selective exposure effects in the face of a crisis, and identify right-wing ideological, trust-, and science-related beliefs that might influence the selection and sharing of disinformation. A representative survey of German internet users (N = 1101) at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak showed a confirmation bias in crisis-related news selection and sharing. It revealed right-wing authoritarianism and political mistrust as significant predictors of disinformation selection. The influence of social dominance orientation, mistrust in politics, and perceived certainty of knowledge were significant for sharing disinformation. The present results extend previous knowledge about people’s (dis)information behavior in times of crisis, and shed light on groups particularly vulnerable to disinformation.

Do Sexist Comments Hinder Participation in Online Political Discussions?

Abstract: Women who visibly engage in politics online experience a lot of backlash. The presented study investigates sexist incivility against women in online political spaces as a possible explanation for the gender gap in online political discussion and expression. Online sexism solidifies the masculine norm in online political spaces. Drawing on social cognitive theory and the theory of normative social behavior, we understand online incivility as communication mechanisms that enforce gender norms in online political discussions. We use a preregistered online survey experiment with German Internet users to investigate how sexist comments in online political discussions affect women’s participation in the discussion, perceived social norms about participating, and their internal political efficacy. We found no effects of sexist comments on the propensity to engage in the discussion or the political efficacy to contribute. However, the presence of sexist comments increased the fear of sanctions in both men and women. The null findings of the preregistered experiment occurred despite sufficient statistical power and a successful treatment check. We discuss several possible explanations for the null effects and ways forward.

Simulated Gambling: An Explorative Study Based on a Representative Survey.

Gambling usually involves wagering real money but can also be conducted with virtual money, chips, or coins. This phenomenon is sometimes referred to as simulated gambling, social gambling, or play money gambling. This study explores correlations and transitions between simulated gambling and real money gambling with an emphasis on gambling-related harms and public health concerns. The analysis is based on a national representative survey of 46,136 German Internet users which included 5,191 real money online gamblers (RMG), 54% of whom had also participated in simulated gambling (SG). The data set is divided into subsamples based on participation in SG to carve out significant differences in these groups in regard to various socio demographics, gambling patterns, and gambling problems. Regression models are used to predict RMG frequency, participation in SG, SG participation frequency, and problem gambling. The results show a clear proximity between SG and RMG with 17% of the total sample and 54% of problem gamblers reporting being "quite sure" or "certain" that simulated gambling had led them to gambling with real money. While 7% of individuals that engaged exclusively in RMG showed gambling problems, the rate is 33% for those that engaged in both RMG and SG. Regression results provide further evidence of a relationship between SG and problem gambling, although with differing effect sizes for different game forms. We argue that SG can be both a substitute and a primer for RMG, especially for problem gamblers.

The contextual role of privacy concerns in online political participation

Research on online political participation highlights how online platforms may facilitate or encumber political participation. In this contribution, we add to existing research on digital inequalities in online political participation by focusing on privacy concerns as a critical construct. We follow a contextual understanding of online privacy and examine a variety of online political behaviours to differentiate the distinctive roles privacy concerns play in higher- and lower-threshold forms of participation. Based on a survey of German Internet users, we find that social media use exerts a strong positive effect on political participation, especially lower-threshold forms of participation. As privacy concerns are spread quite evenly throughout the population, they contribute little to the socioeconomic stratification of online political participation. Privacy concerns relate positively to higher-threshold forms of political participation. We discuss how higher- and lower-threshold participation constitute distinct contexts for users’ considerations of privacy risks.

Debunking health myths on the internet: the persuasive effect of (visual) online communication

AimDeveloping evidence-based recommendations on how to debunk health-related misinformation and more specific health myths in (online) communication is important for individual health and the society. The present study investigated the effects of debunking/correction texts created according to the latest research findings with regard to four different health myths on recipients’ belief, behaviour and feelings regarding the myths. Further, the study investigated the effects of different visualisations (machine-technical created image, diagram, image of an expert, message without an image) in the debunking texts.Subject and methodsA representative sample of German Internet users (N = 700) participated in an anonymous online survey experiment with a 4 (myths) × 4 (picture) mixed study design.ResultsThe results show that receiving an online news article that refutes a widespread health myth with or without the use of an image can significantly change the attitudes of the recipients toward this myth. The most influential variable was the attributed credibility: the more credible a debunking text is for a recipient, the more corrective effectiveness it has. However, the corrective messages did not differ in their persuasive effects depending on the image types used.ConclusionThe results offer an optimistic outlook on the correction of health-related misinformation and especially health myths and insight into why and how people change their beliefs (or not) and how beliefs in health myths can be reduced. The findings can be used by journalists, scientists, doctors and many other actors for efficient (online) communication.

Explaining Online Information Seeking Behaviors in People With Different Health Statuses: German Representative Cross-sectional Survey

BackgroundWorldwide, the internet is an increasingly important channel for health information. Many theories have been applied in research on online health information seeking behaviors (HISBs), with each model integrating a different set of predictors; thus, a common understanding of the predictors of (online) HISB is still missing. Another shortcoming of the theories explaining (online) HISB is that most existing models, so far, focus on very specific health contexts such as cancer. Therefore, the assumptions of the Planned Risk Information Seeking Model (PRISM) as the latest integrative model are applied to study online HISB, because this model identifies the general cognitive and sociopsychological factors that explain health information seeking intention. We shift away from single diseases and explore cross-thematic patterns of online HISB intention and compare predictors concerning different health statuses as it can be assumed that groups of people perceiving themselves as ill or healthy will differ concerning their drivers of online HISB. Considering the specifics of online HISB and variation in individual context factors is key for the development of generalizable theories.ObjectiveThe objective of our study was to contribute to the development of the concept of online HISB in 2 areas. First, this study aimed to explore individual-level predictors of individuals’ online HISB intention by applying the postulates of PRISM. Second, we compared relevant predictors of online HISB in groups of people with different health statuses to identify cross-thematic central patterns of online HISB.MethodsData from a representative sample of German internet users (n=822) served to explain online HISB intentions and influencing patterns in different groups of people. The applicability of the PRISM to online HISB intention was tested by structural equation modeling and multigroup comparison.ResultsOur results revealed PRISM to be an effective framework for explaining online HISB intention. For online HISB, attitudes toward seeking health information online provided the most important explanatory power followed by risk perceptions and affective risk responses. The multigroup comparison revealed differences both regarding the explanatory power of the model and the relevance of predictors of online HISB. The online HISB intention could be better explained for people facing a health threat, suggesting that the predictors adopted from PRISM were more suitable to explain a problem-driven type of information-seeking behavior.ConclusionsOur findings indicate that attitudes toward seeking health information online and risk perceptions are of central importance for online HISB across different health-conditional contexts. Predictors such as self-efficacy and perceived knowledge insufficiency play a context-dependent role—they are more influential when individuals are facing health threats and the search for health information is of higher personal relevance and urgency. These findings can be understood as the first step to develop a generalized theory of online HISB.

A Longitudinal Study on Online Sexual Engagement, Victimization, and Psychosocial Well-Being.

Several cross-sectional studies have shown that online sexual engagement (OSE) in the form of sexting or sexy self-presentation on social media is associated with an increased risk of experiencing negative consequences, such as online sexual victimization (OSV) or lower levels of psychosocial well-being. However, representative and longitudinal studies are scarce. The current study follows three research goals: (1) examining the prevalence of OSE and OSV among a random-quota sample of 1,019 German Internet users aged 14–64 years, (2) examining gender and age-related differences in OSE and OSV, and (3) examining the longitudinal relationships between OSE, OSV, and psychosocial well-being over a period of 1 year. Our results indicate that OSE and OSV are relatively widespread: 17.7% of the participants had already experienced OSV, 25.3% indicated that they had presented themselves online in a sexualized manner at least once in the past 2 months, and 22.7% showed a certain willingness to engage in sexting. We found higher rates among the younger participants. However, to a certain degree, older individuals were also affected. Male participants showed higher sexting willingness and more often presented themselves in a sexualized manner than females, whereas only small differences related to OSV were found. Concerning relationships with psychosocial well-being, our cross-sectional results showed that OSE, OSV, and mental problems are intercorrelated. Furthermore, we detected a significant long-term relationship between higher sexting willingness at time 1 and more victimization experienced 1 year later, whereas no significant longitudinal associations with lower levels of psychosocial well-being were identified.

Experiential marketing as a tool to enhance Tourists’ pre-travel online destination experiences? A web-based experiment

Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) are increasingly using experiential marketing on their websites to generate positive pre-travel online destination experiences (ODEs). However, little is known about the ODE construct and the effects of applying experiential marketing on destination websites on ODEs. A scale was developed and applied in a web-based experiment to measure ODEs and to enhance the understanding of the dimensionality of this construct. The travel inspiration phase was simulated and the ODEs of three experimental groups exposed to different websites of the destination Reunion Island were compared. The experiment was conducted with a representative sample of German internet users. Findings indicate that when surfing on a destination website in the inspiration phase, the users’ ODE is holistic and cannot be differentiated into theoretically relevant dimensions (e.g. sensory or affective). Moreover, the application of experiential marketing had a statistically significant, small effect on ODEs when adjusted for aspects of personal relevance. Yet, ODE differences between high and medium levels of experiential marketing were negligible. Accordingly, DMOs should realize that experiential marketing enhances ODEs, but beyond a certain level, additional complex multi-media elements do not necessarily further increase the experiential effect. For the important assessment of experiential user reactions, the developed ODE scale provides a first approach. • A new scale to measure pre-travel online destination experiences (ODEs). • ODEs are less differentiated than product brand experiences. • ODEs of websites with different levels of experiential marketing were compared. • Significant yet small effects of experiential marketing on ODEs were found. • Many individual influencing factors make it difficult for DMOs to influence ODEs.

Conservative bias, selective political exposure and truly false consensus beliefs in political communication about the 'refugee crisis' in Germany.

The rise of digital media has increased the opportunities for individuals to self-select political content online. This development has stimulated empirical research on how people select political information, especially when political beliefs are at stake. In the present paper, we tested a series of theory-derived assumptions about antecedents and consequences of selective exposure to confirmative political information and opinions in the digital arena. We conducted an online survey with German Internet users (N = 897, April 2016) and assessed political attitudes, media use and general beliefs in the context of the so-called “migration crisis”. 28% of the participants in our sample reported exposure to a confirmative information environment. They are more likely to hear or read about political opinions on migration and political asylum that are similar to their own compared to cross-cutting content. We found no evidence for the assumption that the technological affordances of the Internet foster this form of selective political exposure. Instead, our analyses indicate that conservatism is a positive predictor of selecting confirmative information environments when it comes to migration and political asylum. We also gathered evidence that this relation is mediated by perceived threat and that selective political exposure is linked to truly false consensus beliefs. Our findings inform supply- and demand-side explanations of selective political exposure online. We discuss the relevance for psychological theories about the motivational underpinnings of selective exposure.

Investigating the Problematic Use of Sexually Explicit Internet Content: A Survey Study among German Internet Users

Investigating the Problematic Use of Sexually Explicit Internet Content: A Survey Study among German Internet Users

Development and Validation of an Algorithm Literacy Scale for Internet Users

ABSTRACT In light of the widespread use of big data analytics, internet users are increasingly confronted with algorithmic decision-making. Developing algorithm literacy is thus crucial to empower users to successfully navigate digital environments. In this paper, we present the development and validation of an algorithm literacy scale that consists of two interrelated dimensions: 1) awareness of algorithms use and 2) knowledge about algorithms. To validate the scale, we use item response theory and report findings from two studies. In study 1, we tested 46 items among N = 331 participants, resulting in a 32-item pool. These items were tested in a second study among N = 1,041 German internet users. The final scale consists of each 11 items measuring algorithm awareness and knowledge. Both subscales correlated positively with participants’ subjective coding skills and proved to be an appropriate predictor for participants’ handling of algorithmic curation in three test-scenarios.

Folk theories of algorithmic operations during Internet use: A mixed methods study

We used the folk theory perspective to investigate Internet users’ understanding of algorithms during their Internet use. Empirically, we conducted a mixed-method study. First, we carried out semi-structured in-person interviews with 30 German Internet users. Our analysis of these interviews enabled us to identity five folk theories – economic orientation theory, personal interaction theory, popularity theory, categorization theory, and algorithmic thinking theory. In a second step, we created a standardized survey questionnaire with 19 illustrative statements for these five folk theories, relying on participants’ explanations in the interviews to develop statements that reflected lay users’ ideas as much as possible. Participants (N = 331) were recruited through a commercial online access panel using quota criteria for age, gender, and education level to have a sample representative of the German population. Our survey findings indicate the prevalence of such folk theories among a broader population of Internet users, except for the algorithmic thinking theory, which is likely due to it being based on inaccurate assumptions about algorithms’ capabilities.

Public knowledge of alternative media in times of algorithmically personalized news

Citizens are likely to encounter various types of alternative media online, especially on algorithmically personalized news channels (APNC) like social network sites or search engines. It is unclear, however, to what degree they are aware of these outlets and familiar with the concept of alternative media. This study investigates the relation between exposure to alternative media and knowledge of them, taking the role of APNC into account. Analyzing representative survey data of German Internet users, we find a gap: While many individuals report to use alternative media, few of them are able to name alternative media titles matching scholarly conceptions. Although the use of APNC increases self-reported exposure to alternative media, it does not improve actual knowledge of them. All in all, many Internet users have little awareness of alternative media and do not clearly distinguish between different types of sources they come across online.

Web Routineness and Limits of Predictability: Investigating Demographic and Behavioral Differences Using Web Tracking Data

Understanding human activities and movements on the Web is not only important for computational social scientists but can also offer valuable guidance for the design of online systems for recommendations, caching, advertising, and personalization. In this work, we demonstrate that people tend to follow routines on the Web, and these repetitive patterns of web visits increase their browsing behavior's achievable predictability. We present an information-theoretic framework for measuring the uncertainty and theoretical limits of predictability of human mobility on the Web. We systematically assess the impact of different design decisions on the measurement. We apply the framework to a web tracking dataset of German internet users. Our empirical results highlight that individual's routines on the Web make their browsing behavior predictable to 85% on average, though the value varies across individuals. We observe that these differences in the users' predictabilities can be explained to some extent by their demographic and behavioral attributes.

Misplaced trust? The relationship between trust, ability to identify commercially influenced results and search engine preference

People have a high level of trust in search engines, especially Google, but only limited knowledge of them, as numerous studies have shown. This leads to the question: To what extent is this trust justified considering the lack of familiarity among users with how search engines work and the business models they are founded on? We assume that trust in Google, search engine preferences and knowledge of result types are interrelated. To examine this assumption, we conducted a representative online survey with n = 2012 German Internet users. We show that users with little search engine knowledge are more likely to trust and use Google than users with more knowledge. A contradiction revealed itself – users strongly trust Google, yet they are unable to adequately evaluate search results. For those users, this may be problematic since it can potentially affect knowledge acquisition. Consequently, there is a need to promote user information literacy to create a more solid foundation for user trust in search engines. The impact of our study lies in emphasising the need for creating appropriate training formats to promote information literacy.