Geothermal Water Research Articles

Numerical simulation of hydrothermal flow in the North China Plain: A case study of Henan Province

The distribution and flow of geothermal energy in the North China region are influenced by geological structures and rock thermal properties. However, the interactions between geothermal energy, groundwater movement, and hydrogeochemical processes are not well understood. In this study, a numerical model was developed to simulate these interactions under different geological conditions. The results showed that the stress field of geological structures affects the flow path and velocity distribution of geothermal fluid, leading to distortion and uneven temperature distribution. The distribution of high-mineralized zones of geothermal water indicated the main recharge area in the northern part of the North China Basin (Henan). Hydrochemistry analysis revealed a dynamic balance between centrifugal and centripetal flows in sandstone geothermal water. The study provides important insights for the exploration and development of underground geothermal water, as well as the assessment and optimization of geothermal resources in large basins.

THE LIFE CYCLE STAGE OF WESTERN ROMANIA RESORT-TOWNS AS A TURNING TABLE FOR THERMAL TOURISM DEVELOPMENT, BIHOR COUNTY, ROMANIA

The geothermal potential of the towns of Ștei and Beiuș and their evolutions as resort-towns feature a development evolution whose tourist potential rely on the recent geothermal waters’ capitalization as a spearhead for regional development. Both localities from western Romania were declared tourist resorts based on numerous favorable premises, among which the thermal waters for both curative and leisure purposes. The tourist evolution of the two resort towns occurred differently in terms of supply and demand and in terms of the thermal water consumption and applying Butler’s tourist life cycle concept both resorts are found at the development stage. An inventory of tourist attractions, both natural and man-made has been accomplished, as well as its tourist infrastructure such as operational leisure, catering and accommodation facilities for the supply side. This analysis covers a gap in the existent literature. To reveal the tourist consumption pattern in the two resort towns, secondary data referring to tourist arrivals has been analysed. All these surveyed elements allowed a comparative analysis of two engendered small towns on their rise to tourism development and a highlight of their tourist development stage through the geothermal water capitalization.

Identifying the source and fate of boron in geothermal water: Evidence from B/Na and B isotopes

High level dissolved B, which poses risks to human health, has been widely observed in geothermal water. In the Guide Basin, NW China, a series of geothermal water samples along a fault show a wide range of B contents ranging from 3.14 to 8.33 mg/L, which are higher than the WHO Guideline value equaling 2.4 mg/L in drinking water. To identify the sources and fate of B, we conduct a comprehensive analysis of hydrochemistry and stable isotopes (D, 18O and 11B) of three thermal fields representing three stages of hydrogeochemical evolution (stages I, II and III). From stage I to III, there are trends of increasing mineral dissolution, which is supported by increasing mean reservoir temperature and concentrations of conservative elements (Cl, Na, K, Li and Si). Geothermal water in stage I with meteoric origin and the lowest reservoir temperature has the highest B/Na resulting from silicate dissolution and falls on the mixing line between granitoids and cold water on the plot of δ11B versus 1/B, showing the control of silicate dissolution. However, geothermal water in stage III has lower Ca, B Sr and B/Na than that in stage II. Because of the occurrence of other processes, geothermal water in stages II and III deviates from the LMWL. Compared with geothermal water in stage I, the increased Sr/Ca and decreased B/Ca show that B are removed by both coprecipitation and vapor separation. With the aid of B isotopes, we find vapor separation dominates in stage II, whereas carbonate precipitation dominates in stage III. Overall, a combined use of three isotopes (H, O and B) and three element ratios (B/Na, B/Ca and Sr/Ca) leads to a complete understanding of B cycle and hydrogeochemical evolution in hydrothermal systems.

Gaps between Stakeholders` Concerns and Mitigation Measures in ESIA Reports of Geothermal Energy Projects: A Case Study of Geothermal Energy Projects in Djibouti, Ethiopia and Kenya

Geothermal energy serves as a viable alternative to fossil fuels in developing countries, catering to electricity needs, supporting socio-economic development, and striving towards sustainable development goals. It also poses potential negative impacts on the environment and society. This study conducted a comparative analysis of mitigation measures and stakeholders' concerns across eight environmental and social impact assessment reports (ESIA) for geothermal energy development projects in Djibouti, Ethiopia, and Kenya. Mitchell's mitigation hierarchy guideline (1997) was used to examine the purpose of 708 proposed mitigation measures for eight environmental and nine social criteria extracted from the literature and then a deductive qualitative content analysis were used to categorize these measures according to 18 criteria collected from the literature. Additionally, using an inductive qualitative content analysis, the study analysed 680 stakeholders' concerns sourced from public participation materials in the ESIA reports, identifying four main thematic categories and twenty-two subcategories. Stakeholders expressed concerns predominantly about socio-economic (52%) and development matters (20%), while ESIA reports offered fewer social mitigation measures (28.7%) compared to environmental ones (71.3%). Nonetheless, a strong correlation between the environmental and social mitigation measures proposed for our 17 criteria demonstrates a higher proportion of measures in power plant construction projects. Despite this, communities voiced apprehensions about new involuntary resettlement plans, economic opportunities, and unrealized corporate social responsibility (CSR) projects. Furthermore, the study revealed that local communities complained about the adverse effects of previous geothermal development projects, including air, water, and soil pollution, impacting their health, crop production, and livestock. This research highlights the discrepancy between stakeholders' concerns and mitigation measures in ESIA reports, attributed to possible inadequacies in the conduct of social impact assessment and public participation, leading to misunderstandings regarding project impacts and benefits among local communities. To address these issues, this paper recommends a more comprehensive understanding of social aspects, the consideration of cumulative impacts from other geothermal projects in the same area, and transparent communication to avoid unrealistic or costly promises during the realization of ESIA reports for geothermal energy projects

Economic Analysis of Gas Turbine Using to Increase Efficiency of the Organic Rankine Cycle

In this research, a modified organic Rankine cycle (ORC) system has been presented and examined. This system incorporates a gas turbine as an additional subsystem to boost the enthalpy of geothermal brine. The primary objective of this study is to perform an economic evaluation of the modified ORC system, wherein a gas turbine is utilized to enhance the quality of geothermal steam. The suggested modified ORC system is particularly well-suited for areas abundant in geothermal resources with low to medium temperatures. It offers a more effective utilization of such resources, resulting in improved efficiency. The study considered 10 different working fluids and 8 types of gas turbines used to heat the geothermal water brine witch, the temperature vary of which varies between 80–130 °C. Various flue gas temperatures behind the heat exchanger, as well as temperatures of the return of the geothermal water to the injection hole, were examined. Based on that, 990 variations of configuration have been analyzed. The research showed that the lowest simple payback time (SPBT) values were achieved for the SGT-800 gas turbine and the working fluid R1336mzz(Z), for example, for an electricity price equal 200 USD/MWh and a natural gas price equal to 0.4 USD/hg, resulting in a SPBT value of 1.45 years. Additionally, for this variant, the dependence of SPBT on the price of electricity and the depth of the geothermal well was calculated; assuming the depth of the geothermal well is 2000 m, SPBT changes depending on the adopted gas prices and so for 150 USD/MWh it is 2.2 years, while at the price of 100 USD/MWh it is 5.5 years. It can be concluded that a decrease in SPBT is observed with an increase in the price of electricity and a decrease in the depth of the geothermal well. The findings of this study can help us to better understand the need to utilize low and medium temperature geothermal heat by using combined cycles (including gas turbines), also from an economic point of view.

Geochemical Evidence Constraining Genesis and Mineral Scaling of the Yangbajing Geothermal Field, Southwestern China

The Yangbajing geothermal field, a renowned high-temperature geothermal resource in Tibet of southwestern China, has been utilized for power generation for several decades. To improve geothermal exploitation in the Yangbajing, genesis and mineral scaling have yet to be further revealed. In this study, hydrochemistry and D-O-Sr isotopy were employed for analyzing genesis and mineral scaling in the Yangbajing geothermal field. The geothermal waters were weakly alkaline and had a high TDS content (1400–2900 mg/L) with the Cl-Na, Cl·HCO3-Na, and HCO3·Cl-Na types. The dissolution of silicate minerals (sodium and potassium feldspars) and positive cation exchange controlled the hydrogeochemical process. The geothermal water was recharged from snow-melted water and meteoric water originating from the Nyainqentanglh Mountains and Tangshan Mountains. The geothermal waters possessed the highest reservoir temperature of 299 °C and the largest circulation depth of 2010 m according to various geothermometers. The geothermal waters can produce CaCO3 and SiO2 scaling during vertical and horizontal transport. These achievements can provide a scientific basis for the sustainable development and conservation of the high-temperature geothermal resources in Yangbajing and elsewhere.

An unusual case of low concentration mineral brines in the geothermal waters from Beiuș Basin (Northwestern Romania)

The aim of the BrineRIS project is to explore brines in RIS countries potential for critical metal extraction In the frame of this project the concentration of mineral brines in three geothermal wells located in the Beiuș Basin (northwestern Romania) was determined by analyzing the water from the wells. Until recently no reliable trace element data were available from Beiuș basin. Following the new analyses, the geothermal water extracted by TRANSGEX SA company from wells F-3001H, F-3003H, and F-3005H revealed exceptionally low concentrations of associated chemical compounds. The Li-concentration is only ~ 22 – 32 µg/l. Zn, I, Rb and As present in similar concentrations, while other trace elements (e.g. Co, V, Ti) are below detection limit. The Sr (~ 540 – 680 µg/l), Ba (~ 170 – 200 µg/l) and B (~ 70 – 100 µg/l) concentrations are slightly elevated, but still low. Therefore, the water in this "geothermal reservoir" can be classified as relatively potable, but it is not appropriate for critical metal extraction. In this paper, some documented concentrations from previous years have been compared to recent concentrations. In addition, the relationship between geology and water chemistry is emphasized in order to determine the reason for the absence of solutes that were expected to be found in this water.

A New Approach to the Development of Geothermal Water Utilization in the Context of Identifying and Meeting the Social Needs of Local Communities: A Case Study from the Mogilno–Łódź Trough, Central Poland

For many years, geothermal energy has been successfully used for both energy as well as balneological, healing, and recreational purposes. It should be emphasized that, along with the great interest in geothermal investments, the development of other economic sectors (i.e., tourism, cosmetology, food production, and many other sectors related directly or indirectly to geothermal waters) are also noted in this paper. That kind of development is seen both in regions where centers using geothermal energy are created, as well as in their immediate vicinity. An important aspect of the use of geothermal energy is also its positive impact on the environment by reducing the emission of pollutants that could end up in the environment as a result of using conventional energy sources, namely coal or natural gas. Given the high level of air pollution in Poland, according to data from the European Environment Agency, 12 Polish cities are among the 20 most polluted cities in Europe (data for 2021–2022), and this aspect seems to be key for achieving sustainability while maintaining economic balance. In this article, a new approach to the development of geothermal water utilization in the context of identifying and meeting the social needs of local communities in the Mogilno–Łódź Trough region is described.

Characteristics of geothermal waters in eastern Wugongshan based on hydrogen, oxygen, and strontium isotopes

It is crucial to investigate the features of the geothermal waters for sustainable exploitation and utilization. It is rich in low-medium temperature geothermal waters in the Wugongshan area in Jiangxi Province, which is urgent to find out the characteristics of the geothermal waters. This study intends to reveal the genetical model of geothermal waters in the eastern Wugongshan area including recharge source, cyclic evolution, and heat source, based on the methodical analysis of hydrogen, oxygen, and strontium isotopic data. Results show that the precipitation at recharge elevations between 1500 and 2200 m is the main recharge source of geothermal waters in the study area. Precipitation infiltrates deep into the area near the crust and is heated into geothermal fluid. Water-rock interactions occur during deep circulation. In the upwelling process, geothermal waters are mixed with shallow groundwaters at different mixing ratios (17%–74%). Finally, a conceptual model of the geothermal waters is proposed. It can provide some guidance for the development of geothermal waters in the eastern Wugongshan area.

Multi-index-weighted geothermometer estimation of geothermal reservoir temperature: Applications and future directions

Geothermal reservoir temperature (GRT) is an important factor for estimation of geothermal resources and exploitative potential. Errors in the estimated temperature of a geothermal reservoir can likely result from the use of a single geothermometer or the average. Therefore, there is an urgent need for novel and more accurate methods for estimating GRT. Taking Yitong Basin, China as the study area, this study collected water samples and measured the geothermal water temperature of 26 geothermal wells. After application of the improved entropy method (IEM) to the collected data, a multi-index weighted geothermometer (MIWG) was proposed. The MIWG provided the most accurate estimation of temperature, with average errors in temperature estimation for quartz, chalcedony, Na–K, K–Mg, and MIWG of 57.58 %, 15.86 %, 29.92 %, 42.03 %, and 11.94 %, respectively. This novel approach to estimating GRT has clear advantages, including wide applicability, and can provide a new pathway for future related research.

Cultivation of Arthrospira platensis using different agro-industrial liquid anaerobic digestates diluted with geothermal water: A sustainable culture strategy

The anaerobic digestion sector is undergoing worldwide expansion, and alternatives of using digestate as substrate for microalgae cultivation in order to improve the profitability and environmental impact of biogas plants are important. This work investigates the feasibility of growing Arthrospira platensis (A. platensis) on diluted liquid anaerobic digestates using geothermal water (GW) as alternative source of water. To this purpose, digestates from four industrial biogas plants were collected and used to carry out A. platensis cultivation assays. In the first part of the study, a screening experiment was performed to determine the ideal dilution factor suitable for A. platensis growth using each individual anaerobic digestate diluted with demineralized water (DW). Depending on the type of digestate, the most appropriate dilution factors ranged from 2× to 60× corresponding to optimal initial ammonium and turbidity values of 40–95 mgN.L−1 and 10–70 NTU, respectively. These dilution factors were consequently used to investigate the opportunity to substitute DW by GW for the culture of A. platensis. No significant changes were observed in the growth profiles when DW was replaced by GW for the four digestates tested. Regarding the final concentration reached by the different digestates, values ranged from 0.58 to 0.77 gdry matter.L−1 with DW as compared to values from 0.53 to 0.66 gdry matter.L−1 with GW. Experimental findings also showed the strong nutrient bioremediation potential of A. platensis culture, with removal efficiencies ranging from 96 to 97 %, 78 to 100 %, 45 to 66 % for N-NH4+, P-PO43− and K+, respectively. These promising results indicate that geothermal water could be used as substitute to fresh water for diluting anaerobic digestates and cultivating A. platensis, in a more sustainable way compared to conventional culture approaches using fresh water.

Novel lithium ion-sieve spinning fiber composite of PVDF-HMO for lithium recovery from geothermal water

With the increasing application of the industrialization of lithium and its derivatives, there has been a surge of interest in recovering this resource from liquid sources. However, synthesizing adsorbents with industrial significance is still a significant challenge. Herein, the precursor Li1.6Mn1.6O4 of H1.6Mn1.6O4 powder absorbent with the highest theoretical adsorption capacity and the lowest Mn dissolution loss rate was first synthesized by hydrothermal or high-temperature solid phase method. The commercialized wet spinning apparatus, which has convenient operation and a simple process, was used to prepare PVDF/HMO spinning fiber to recover lithium resources from geothermal water. It has a large specific surface area of 31.45 m2 g−1 and a pore size of 9.04 nm, and the adsorption capacity was 14.95 mg g−1, with the distribution coefficient of Li+ being 1404.96 mL g−1. Furthermore, the equilibrium was reached within just 2 h at pH 12, and the elution time was just 1 h. Even after the fifth cycle, the adsorption capacity remained high at 14.21 mg g−1. These characteristics indicate that the new material has excellent application potential for lithium recovery from geothermal water.

Gensis of geothermal water in the Da Qaidam area, northern margin of the Qaidam Basin: Constraints from hydrochemistry and isotopes of hydrogen-oxygen-strontium

Gensis of geothermal water in the Da Qaidam area, northern margin of the Qaidam Basin: Constraints from hydrochemistry and isotopes of hydrogen-oxygen-strontium

Could geothermal water and energy use improve living conditions? Environmental effects from Poland

Could geothermal water and energy use improve living conditions? Environmental effects from Poland

Research on the day-ahead scheduling optimization method of medium-depth geothermal cascade heating system

The medium-depth geothermal cascade utilization technology plays a crucial role in achieving low-carbon and low-cost heat supply. However, the traditional rigid regulation method faces challenges in ensuring real-time supply-demand balance due to the district heating demand being influenced by outdoor weather and the complexity of the operating parameters of the medium-depth geothermal cascade heating system. Consequently, problems such as low utilization of geothermal water and high operating costs arise. To address these issues, this study proposes a day-ahead scheduling optimization method for the medium-depth geothermal cascade heating system, integrating the adaptive moment estimation (Adam) optimized long short-term memory (LSTM) prediction algorithm, interior point method, and particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm. Based on enhanced precision prediction, this study aims to optimize variables including partial load rate (PLR), flow rate, cooling water return temperature, and chilled water return temperature. The effectiveness of the proposed optimization method is verified through the establishment of a TRNSYS simulation platform in conjunction with MATLAB, focusing on a geothermal cascade heating project in Tianjin. The results demonstrate that the proposed day-ahead scheduling optimization method effectively promotes the coordinated operation among energy systems, achieving significant energy savings for the energy station (10.13 %). The novelty of this research lies in the utilization of scientific algorithms to optimize multiple variables within the system, which holds the potential to enhance the matching of supply and demand and improve the operational effectiveness of comparable systems. In summary, this study provides valuable insights and practical implications for the field of strategic optimization. However, it is essential to acknowledge that the applicability of the findings to other geographic locations, different scale projects, or varying system configurations necessitates additional investigation. The generalizability is subject to further research and exploration.

Stability of geothermal waters parameters as a major factor guaranteeing the possibility of its use and discharge into the environment

Geothermal waters are considered a type of renewable energy source. Waters with elevated temperatures are also used in balneotherapy. In each type of use, the stability of the basic parameters guarantees the reliable operation of the plant. On the other hand, useable geothermal waters, which in legal terms are usually wastewater, are discharged into a surface water reservoir or injected into the rock. The diversity of geothermal waters use options creates the need to assess stability. Low and known variability of the basic parameters is extremely important for the protection of the receiving environment or the reliability of the injection process. This paper identifies the basic parameters, the relationships between them and a methodology for assessing their stability, which has not been widely used to date. The approach presented is universal and can be successfully applied to other geothermal installations anywhere in the world.

Separation of Boron and Arsenic from Geothermal Water with Novel Gel-Type Chelating Ion Exchange Resins: Batch and Column Sorption-Elution Studies

In this research, the removal of boron and arsenic from geothermal water was examined by using novel N-methyl-d-glucamine functionalized gel-like resins (abbreviated as 1JW and 2JW) synthesized by the membrane emulsification method. The outcomes were compared with those of commercially available boron selective chelating ion exchange resin (Diaion CRB 05). According to the results obtained with the novel resins, it was possible to reduce both boron and arsenic concentrations in geothermal water by using these novel gel-like chelating resins below their permissible levels for agricultural irrigation (<1 mg B/L) and drinking water (<0.01 mg As/L) by using the batch method. The optimum resin concentration required for almost complete boron removal (more than 95%) with the two chelating resins was determined to be 2 g/L. The novel gel-like chelating resins 1JW and 2JW achieved 94% of arsenic removal by using the resin concentration of 8 g/L, while the required resin concentration was 32 g/L for 94% of arsenic removal using commercially available Diaion CRB05 resin. In addition, the column performance characteristics of the novel chelating resins for the separation of boron were studied, and the results were compared to those obtained with Diaion CRB05. According to the column data obtained, the total resin capacities of the Diaion CRB05, 1JW, and 2JW resins were calculated as 6.29, 5.08, and 4.64 mg B/mL-resin, respectively.

Lithology controls on the mixing behavior and discharge regime of thermal groundwater in the Bogexi geothermal field on Tibetan Plateau

Geothermal springs within the same geothermal system are naturally considered with similar output manifestation, but usually distinct. A low temperature geothermal spring group (Bogexi) on eastern Tibetan Plateau was investigated and compared with the boiling geothermal spring group (Rekeng) in the same fault zone to get insights into the reasons behind. The Bogexi geothermal springs have quite lower output temperature (25.0–65.3℃) than the boiling Rekeng geothermal springs (84.5–90.0℃). Although all these two geothermal spring groups have the same hydrochemical facies of HCO3-Na, the Bogexi geothermal springs present lower concentration of Na+ and trace elements. The geothermal waters of Bogexi were originated from the precipitation and glacier/snow meltwater of the eastern Haizi mountains with the recharge elevation of 4,400–4,700 m. These recharged waters infiltrate into the geothermal system that with the reservoir temperature of 160-180℃ and are heated by tectonic deformation heat in the depth of 3,100–3,400 m. Lithology determines the fissures development in the shallow and furtherly controls the mixing behaviors and discharge characteristics of geothermal springs in the discharge area. As a result, the thermal groundwaters of Bogexi are mixed with great quantity of shallow cycling cold water with the mixing proportion averaging at 73–76 % during the ascending process, leading to their lower output temperatures and distinct hydrochemical and isotopic features from the boiling Rekeng geothermal springs. A conceptual model was proposed to portray the genesis of low temperature geothermal springs in high temperature geothermal system. The recharged water percolates downward and is heated in the deep thermal reservoir. Heated waters are enriched of chemical elements during this process and then flow upwards under the driving of hydraulic pressure. While the lithology determines the circulation of cold water in the discharge area. Karst lithology, usually with developed fissures and channels, can provide more favorable conditions for cold water cycling in the shallow part than other lithology. This leads to considerable cold water mixed into the upward-flowing geothermal groundwater, and differs these geothermal springs from other ones in the same fault zone in output temperature and hydrochemcial features. This research can improve the understanding of formation mechanism of output discrepancies of various springs within one geothermal system.

Geochemical study on the deposition of silica scale at Olkaria well OW-35: A key to understanding the formation mechanisms of silica scale at the Olkaria Geothermal Field, Kenya

In the Olkaria geothermal field, Kenya, a silica scale formed from geothermal water at the OW-35 production well was geochemically investigated. The geothermal water is highly alkaline, with a pH of 10.13, while the salinity is low, with a total Cl concentration of 432.4 ppm. The silica scale was precipitated from geothermal water with a high temperature (150–190 °C) in the OW-35 separator. For the mineral composition of the scale sample, it is mainly amorphous Opal-A and crystalline quartz. The SiO2 content was 85.47 wt.%, and the Al2O3 and Fe2O3 contents were high at 3.16 and 1.11%, respectively, despite the fact that Al and Fe concentrations in the geothermal water were low. Based on the enrichment factor, Al was extremely concentrated from the geothermal water onto the silica scale during the formation, suggesting that Al may participate in the formation of the silica scale. For Fe, there was no contribution of Fe to the formation of silica scale, which was present as magnetite. This silica scale is a mixture of crystalline quartz and amorphous opal-A. The deposition mechanism was considered as follows. The quartz was formed by continuous and slow adsorption of monosilicic acid on the surface of the solid due to the slight supersaturated condition. On the other hand, opal-A was formed by a reaction between aluminate ion and monosilicic acid or monosilicate ion on the solid surface.

A Comprehensive Study on the Hydrogeochemical and Isotope Characteristics and Genetic Mechanism of Geothermal Water in the Northern Jinan Region

Geothermal water (GW) resources are highly valued as clean, renewable energy sources. In this study, a comprehensive analysis of water chemistry and isotope data from 25 GW samples was conducted to gain insights into the hydrochemical characteristics and formation mechanisms of the GW in the northern Jinan region (NJR). Statistical analysis and hydrochemical methods were employed for relevant analysis. The findings reveal that the GW in the NJR exhibits high salinity, with an average total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration of 9009.00 mg/L. The major ions identified are Na+ and Cl−, with mean concentrations of 2829.73 mg/L and 4425.77 mg/L, respectively, resulting in a hydrochemical type of Cl−Na. The analysis of δ2H and δ18O isotopes indicates that the GW originates from atmospheric precipitation that undergoes deep cycling and interaction with older groundwater. The composition of 3H suggests that the GW in the NJR is a mixture of waters, while radiocarbon dating (14C) suggests that the recharge of the GW may have occurred in the late Pleistocene era. The GW in the NJR is classified as partially equilibrated waters. The temperature range of geothermal reservoirs is 57.13 to 99.74 °C. The hydrochemical components primarily result from water–rock interactions, including silicate weathering, cation exchange, as well as carbonate weathering and the dissolution of halite and gypsum. Moreover, taking into account the hydrogeological conditions, hydrochemistry, and isotope analysis, a conceptual model of the geothermal reservoir in the NJR was developed. The research findings serve as a valuable reference and foundation for the development and utilization of geothermal resources in the Jinan region. These originate from the Taiyi mountains in the south or the Taihang mountains in the west, and experience deep circulation and long runoff times. This study provides a reference for the sustainable development and utilization of regional geothermal resources.