Georgian People Research Articles

Rusetis imp’eriis kartuli mic’ebidan 1877-1882 c’lebshi osmaletshi gadasul muhajirta realuri ist’oria (kartvel muhajirta shtamomavlebis dghevandeli tvitaghkma turketshi) /რუსეთის იმპერიის ქართული მიწებიდან 1877-1882 წლებში ოსმალეთში გადასულ მუჰაჯირთა რეალური ისტორია (ქართველ მუჰაჯირთა შთამომავლების დღევანდელი თვითაღქმა თურქეთში) [The Real History of Muhajir Migration from Russian Ruled Georgia to Ottoman Empire in 1877-1882 (the Self-Concept of Georgian Muhajirs’ Descendants in Turkey)

A mother language is a reflection of a person; the people create a language, and the language constructs the nation. The state language is a measure of dignity”, the magnitude of these words by Professor Tariel Putkaradze is fully reflected in numerous of his academic works the primary focus of which is the idea of the national-linguistic unity of the Georgians. The article deals with a remarkable idea of the national-linguistic unity of the Georgian people to which the great Kartvelologist and state-minded scholar dedicated his short but productive career. As he remarks, in the post-Soviet period, he together with his like-minded colleagues revived the then neglected traditional vision shared by Georgian chroniclers and public figures. Based on historical sources, modern criteria, and attitudes that distinguish between a language and a dialect, he reinforced the historical perspective concerning one mother language of the Georgians and promoted the issue of the national-linguistic unity as well as its importance for further construction of democratic Georgia. Tariel Putkaradze made a significant contribution to the development of Kartvelology and the Humanities in general. Through his research, he advanced the idea of the national-linguistic unity of the Georgian people, emphasizing the exceptional importance of the language for the consolidation of the nation. საკვანძო სიტყვები: ქართველოლოგია, ეროვნულ-ენობრივი ერთიანობის საკითხი, ტარიელ ფუტკარაძე. Keywords: Kartvelology, the issue of national-linguistic unity, Tariel Putkaradze.

Lento, a “chronicler” of the events of March 9, 1956 (According to Otar Chkheidze’s novel “Revelation”

March 9, 1956 remains a controversial issue in Georgian historiography to this day, as the protest was ambivalent in its content ad demands. Despite differences of opinion, everyone agress, that this was the first anti-Soviet political rally in the Soviet Union. On the one hand, the demonastrators, insulted by Nikita Khrushov’s report on “The cult of personality” at the 20th congress of the CPSU, praised Stalin, and on the other hand, distanced themselves from the Soviet Union and demanded national independence. In the Soviet Union (obviously in Soviet Georgia) this topic has been avoided for decades; It did not have a wide response in public discourse. Lasha Berulava comments on the tragedy in the article “March 9, 1956 – Another Bood Drop of the dead Man” the following opinion is expressed:”Stalin,with his death, acted as a “dead body” and “organized the massacre of the capital of the Georgian people. This was March 9, 1956, when Georgians protested against the cult of Stalin; It was Stalin who wrote to Orjonikidze standing near Tbilisi surrounded by Russian troops:”Attack now, take the city, I will command you!” {Berulava, 2011:09}.In this article we will try to briefly discuss the events of March 9, 1956, which take place agaibst the background of the life of a boy from the village, Lento. Lento, as a “chronicler” of “Looker” events from afar, tries to remember the “shots” which camera in his hand. Lento does not appear to be the leader’s apologist either, but he still has trouble and loses his brother and sister in these “dumb” people.

Akaki Tsereteli’s unknown letter about repressions of year 1906

Part of Akaki Tsereteli’s creative legacy is still spread in different foundations or private collections. Difficulty about finding these writings is that some documents in various binders do not have description. Currently foundations are intensively being studied in order to create digital catalogues and whenever this process is finished, many interesting documents will be displayed. “Burning down Imereti during movement” is one of Akaki’s public letters which remained unknown until today. It will be published after 115 years in corresponding value of the writer's new academic publication of his works. Manuscript is being held at Kutaisi’s historic museum.“Burning down Imereti during movement” is about revolutionary movements and its echoes in Georgia, which took place in the years 1905-1907. On the one hand it is a bold protest against King’s cruel policy; Also, the article contains Akaki Tsereteli’s especially significant observations and thoughts about ongoing political processes.In the first paragraph of the article there is a very interesting observation of the author. According to his words, the Russian empire from the very beginning intended absolute occupation and annexation of Georgia. According to that, the friendly condition which led King Irakli of Kartli-Kakheti to let Russians in our country without war and blood, was definitely going to break. Akaki thought that everything that was done by Russian governance in our country, was provocative and its goal was to drag Georgian people into armed conflict.Events occurred in 1905 led to logical conclusions. Georgian nobles decided to officially demand national autonomy. On their emergency gathering they created an appropriate document and presented it to the emperor. Surely, the empire would not let Georgia restore their autonomy. They needed a reason to finally destroy us and the reason found out to be that revolutionary movement which was widespread not only in Russia, but also its subordinate countries including Georgia.According to Akaki Tsereteli, a significant part of society was against Georgia’s partaking in revolt from the beginning. They had reasonable suspicion that if the revolutionary movement would be defeated, this would totally change the perspective of Georgian-Russian relationship. Unfortunately, following events proved the correctness of this assumption - Georgians were pled guilty for separatism and it led to very brutal repressions. The events that occurred in Georgia were outrageous for Akaki. That is why he makes fun of Russia in his article and boldly declares that the decision of the government - campaigning against unarmed and helpless people, is worthless and unseemly.

Liturgical Mystery in Zviad Gamsakhurdia's Poetry

For today's Georgian society, the attitude of Zviad Gamsakhurdia to true Orthodox faith is less well known. He not only showed to the Georgian nation the way to gain state independence but he restored the Religious consciousness to Georgian people and Inspired by the spirit of Christianity. All his works are full of orthodox spirit. He creates new poetic phrases, which are more intensely melodic liturgica than just poetry. While his contemporaries avoid mentioning religion, he creates musical prayers: to Saint George, to Saint Nino , prayers for the nation… He writes the poems under the titles: Proscomidia, Easter, Melkesidek – King of Salim, Betania, Prodigal son. Z. Gamsakhurdia not only dedicates poetic prayers to his devout saints but he also gives the poetic form to the Holy liturgy. The poems are proof of this: "Epiphany", "For Manana". As for the poem "Father", he resembles the prayer of the Savior in the Garden of Gethsemane.

Creeping occupation of Georgian territories and Russian aggression against Georgians living in occupied territories

This article describes the creeping occupation of Georgian territories and Russian aggression against the local civilian population. It explains in detail how Russia violates international norms and rules and treats the civilian population in the occupied territories of Georgia. Since the occupation of the Georgian territories, Russia constantly discriminates against the local Georgian people and treats them very inhumanly. Many Georgian families were forced to abandon Abkhazia and South Ossetia due to this inhuman treatment. The legal status of Georgians living in the occupied territories considerably worsened after the Russian Federation signed a treaty on “alliance and strategic partnership” with Abkhazia and South Ossetia. As time passes, Russia is creating more obstacles and problems for local Georgian people and treats them very inhumanly. Georgians living in the occupied territories are deprived of all human rights and are treated as second-rate citizens by puppet regimes in Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Georgian people living close to the occupation line also face enormous problems due to the creeping annexation of Georgian territories. Russian Federation tries to expand the boundaries of South Ossetia at the expense of Georgian lands. As a result of this creeping occupation local Georgian people living close to the occupied territories constantly lose their vital agricultural lands, which are the only source of income for them.

Regional Studies in Soviet Georgian Ethnography after World War II

The present paper deals with the analysis of the Soviet ideological approaches, related with ethnology development, therefore the research covers two following directions: 1. The research of the importance of ethnological film-making, covering religious and ethnolocultural values of Georgia and its neighboring countries. The first scientific-research expedition to the mountainous Georgia, supported with film-making equipment in Georgia, was implemented in 1960. Different films, featuring historical monuments or episodes or displaying material and spiritual lifestyle, which had already been filmed in Georgia before, were characterized with the total lack of the main features of ethnographical films. For example, the authors had been never applied preliminarily planned and staged scenes. Accordingly, a special attention shall be paid on Mirian Khutsishvili’s activity, who acted as the ethnologist and an effective a camera man at the same time. 2. The analysis of activity of two key women scientists, involved in ethnographical research - Vera Bardavelidze, whose scientific work was related with the study of everyday lifestyle of Georgian people and Nino Brailashvili, who made a great contribution in creation of ethnographical sketches.

MICHEL MOUSKHELY – ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE AND VISA-FREE TRAVEL TO EUROPE

The European integration processes is not losing its topicality to this day. It still remains as the important political challenge of the 21st century in the geopolitical area of the modern world. In these processes Georgia is actively participating today too, as it is known an agreement of the association between Georgia and the European Union was signed in summer 2014. This fact was a landmark of the greatest historical importance for Georgian people. It means returning of the Georgian people to its initial homeland-Europe, which always struggled and strived for it. It must be noted that we are not entering the Europe with empty hands but are widely credited with the propaganda of European qualities and bringing them to Georgia. It is still not widely known to the general public that at the starting point of uniting the European Union (European Confederation) were standing famous Georgian scientists and public figures. M. Muskhelishvili and A. Nikuradze. While Robert Schuman and Jean Monnet talked about the idea of uniting Europe, M. Muskhelishvili and A. Nikuradze were publishing articles on the same subject in the leading newspapers and magazines and actively participated in the processes of creating the European Union.

ECONOMIC POLICY OF GEORGIA IN THE FACE OF CHALENGES RELATED TO GLOBAL PANDEMIC

Issue of pandemic crisis is actual nowadays, it is under attention of international and national scientists and is well reviewed in different types of literature. During the Covid -19 the attention of the Georgian government fully focused on the problem of health of Georgian people, while the economy of the country was partially paralyzed. Information included in the research strategy of the article were collected from multiple sources: documentary evidence, scientific literature analysis and statistical analysis. The scientific aim of the research is to highlight the current Georgian economic challenges related to pandemic. The authors had an objective to investigate social-economic outcomes in Georgia during the pandemic, to explore the major determinant of country’s economic development such as unemployment, foreign direct investment (FDI), gross domestic product (GDP) exports and imports, remittances, service sector. This paper examines the impact of the Covid-19 crisis on the current important social-economic processes of the country, to generalize them in order to form proper opinions. Findings based on research suggest that the economic situation in Georgia is difficult, therefore all the parties that could influence the positive changes in economy should be informed and involved in every project planned by the local government and international organizations that provide opportunities to foster the process of regional economic development. Authors also provides recommendations how to increase the competitiveness of the country in the future. Pandemic for Georgia is not only a crisis, but also an opportunity to build a new economy, but it is clear that the world will never be the same as it was before Covid-19.

GEORGIAN ETHNOPOLITICAL CONFLICT AS A SUBJECT OF CONFRONTATION BETWEEN THE USA AND RUSSIA

Since 2009 Russia has increased its military forces in Abkhazia and South Ossetia and pursued the policy of ‘creeping annexation in the occupied territories of Georgia. Today, 20% of Georgian territories are occupied by the Russian Federation. The Russian-baked separatists continuously erect barbed-wire border posts in one of the occupied regions of Georgia-South Ossetia and detain Georgian people, under the pretext of ‘illegally crossing the border’. Fundamental rights of the local population are violated daily since the occupants install barbers through people’s houses, gardens, and cultivated lands. Innocent citizens are forced to leave their homes, belongings, and cultivated lands that are left beyond the occupants’ demarcation line. The paper argues that along with other global challenges of the world, the USA-Russia clashes of interests are also found with the Georgian conflicts. While Washington hugely supports Georgia’s territorial integrity and welcomes its Euro-Atlantic aspirations, the Russian Federation, on the contrary, prevents the aforementioned process and directly opposes Georgia’s integration into NATO. The USA condemns Russia’s creeping annexation of Georgian territories and continuously calls on Russia to respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of an independent country. Furthermore, the USA-Russia relations have considerably deteriorated following Russia’s military intervention in Georgia and the recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia as independent states.

Challenges and Perspectives of New Pension Fund Reform in Georgia: Need or Obligation for Population?

As Pension fund system is a cornerstone of countries economy, policymakers across the globe are still discussing about universal effective pension fund systems and struggling to implement and fit it to the country’s economy demography and financial system. From this point the main objective of this research topic was to test the effectiveness of new pension system reform in Georgia. It focuses on whether the reform will have positive effects on tackling poverty among elderly and bring to Georgian people real prosperity. The pension fund system represents the essential part of the economic policy. Moreover, it defines the social and political stability and future the development of the state economies. By other words, the simple objective of the pension system is to pay pensions to workers in their old ages and to protect elderly against the risk of poverty. As Pension fund system is a cornerstone of countries economy, policymakers across the globe are still discussing about universal effective pension fund systems and struggling to implement and fit it to the country’s economy demography and financial system. From this point the main objective of this research topic was to test the effectiveness of new pension system reform in Georgia. It focuses on whether the reform will have positive effects on tackling poverty among elderly and bring to Georgian people real prosperity. Despite of the central government announcement that the new system of accumulative pension was successfully adopted in the country, there are still hot debates and discussions in Georgian society including its fairness and effectiveness, which indicates the lack their awareness and involvement in this process.Since workers aged over 40 can opt-out from the pension system, hundreds of thousands among population will remain without a decent pension in the future. This will cause massive poverty in old age. The main aim of this paper is to analyze exciting pension fund reform in order to give people a clear understanding of reform. In the presented research, there is discussed the introduction and development reform of the pension system in Georgia. International experience is also analyzed on the example of other countries, specifically Armenia, Azerbaijan Estonia and Latvia. It also discusses the characteristic aspects of the pension model introduced in Georgia. Finally, paper also include Social research specifically opinion of Georgian people about the new pension systems.

Georgien zwischen Eigenstaatlichkeit und russischer Okkupation: Die Wurzeln des Konflikts vom 18. Jh. bis 1924 by Philipp Ammon

Reviewed by: Georgien zwischen Eigenstaatlichkeit und russischer Okkupation: Die Wurzeln des Konflikts vom 18. Jh. bis 1924 by Philipp Ammon Jonas Löffler (bio) Philipp Ammon, Georgien zwischen Eigenstaatlichkeit und russischer Okkupation: Die Wurzeln des Konflikts vom 18. Jh. bis 1924 (Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 2020). 238 pp., ill. Bibliography. ISBN: 978-3-465-04407-9. This is a reprint of the book originally published in 2015, now supplemented with a brief afterword by the German Caucasus expert Uwe Halbach. The author, historian and literary scholar Philipp Ammon, wants to "uncover the roots of the Russian-Georgian conflict" (P. 9) by exploring different historical layers of imperial politics and the changing geopolitical interests in the South Caucasus. Ammon's endeavor seems timely and interesting for historians and social scientists occupied with the Southern Caucasian region, especially given that the year 2019 saw another rise in tensions between the two countries. After a Russian deputy sat in the chair of the Georgian parliament's president in June, the ensuing protests led to Russia's halt of air traffic between the two countries and an official warning for Russian citizens traveling to Georgia. The ambitious historical time frame of Ammon's study spans from the first (indirect) contacts between the Georgian kingdoms and the Kievan Rus' in the ninth century to the Soviet invasion of the independent Democratic Republic of Georgia in 1921. Ammon's emphasis, however, lies in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries – largely the time period during which Georgia was part of the Russian Empire. For the most part, Ammon does not make use of primary sources, relying instead on the well-known studies by W. E. D. Allen, David Marshall Lang, Ronald Grigor Suny, and Oliver Reisner along with Alexander Mikaberidze's Historical Dictionary of Georgia.1 Historians familiar with Georgia and the South Caucasus will therefore not find many new aspects of Georgia-Russia relations in Ammon's book. The book is still worth consideration given the relative dearth of German-language textbooks dealing with Caucasian history. This probably explains the attention it has received since it [End Page 267] was first published in 2015, including a number of German-language reviews in academic journals and newspapers.2 These generally positive reviews have overlooked some questionable aspects of Ammon's book brought up toward the end of this review. In the introduction to his book, Ammon underlines its relevance by referring to recent events such as the five-day Russo-Georgian War in August 2008 and the question of Georgia's NATO integration, by problematizing the persisting veneration of Stalin in Georgia and the deep mutual literary entanglements between Georgia and Russia. In the section "Methodological Considerations," Ammon fundamentally criticizes constructivist theories of the nation, arguing that such theories, having become "a 'normative' tendency within contemporary historiography," negate "the concept of the nation as a historical subject claiming political legitimacy" (P. 17). With regard to Georgia, he claims that Benedict Anderson's concept of the "imagined community" is not applicable to "the old European and Asian historical landscapes" (P. 18), including the Caucasus. According to Ammon, it was the Georgian Orthodox liturgy that functioned throughout history and different political entities as a tie between the Georgian people. It is precisely this emphasis on the centrality of Georgian Orthodox faith that informs Ammon's historical narrative, particularly when it comes to historical turning points. Chapter 1 presents a "prehistory" of Georgia-Russia relations, speculating on the origins of the Georgian people and reproducing the thoroughly discredited theory of a relationship between the Georgian and Basque people. It discusses the Christianization of Georgia and possible early cultural transfers from Georgian Orthodoxy to the nascent Christianity of the Kievan Rus'. Chapter 2 covers the establishment of political relations between the Georgian kingdoms and the Russian Empire that eventually led to the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk and the annexation of Georgia in 1801. Once again, Ammon accentuates the role of the Georgians' Orthodox faith in their rapprochement with their northern neighbor. He argues, for example, that the Kakhetian king while being "surrounded by Muslim powers had turned a blind eye to the secularization of the Rus'" (P. 48), a fact...

Shared Past, Different Future? Russian and Georgian Authorities’ Discourse Concerning Homosexuality

Russian and Georgian people share not only a common history but also a relatively common negative view on LGBT rights. Russia still does not have anti-discrimination laws and regulates ‘homosexual propaganda’. In contrast, Georgia has discrimination protection on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity. Why is public opinion in one country deteriorating alongside the passing of anti-discrimination laws, while in the other country, with little improvement in public opinion, it is prohibited to ‘propagandize homosexuality’? We explain how authorities discursively shape institutional changes related to LGBT rights. We assume that the formation of institutions is possible in the process of discursive struggle when actors defend their ideas and meanings about LGBT. Our argument addresses the theoretical framework of institutional change and queer linguistics. We analyze discursive changes in Georgian and Russian authorities debates from 2013 until 2019.

On the Identification of So-Called “Meskhetian Turks”

Introduction. The problem of repatriation of the Muslim population, so-called “Meskhetian Turks” exiled in 1944 from Samtskhe-Javakheti and acceptance of their national identity has long worried Georgian people. The opinions on this subject vary drastically. Depending on the political situation, this issue periodically emerges (possibly deliberately) as a controversy. Comparison and analysis of currently available written sources, special and general literature, documents, recently studied ethnographic materials finally provide an opportunity to define who the “Meskhetian Turks” are. In addition, they reveal who is benefiting from using this artificially created term and for what purpose. Methods and materials. The materials concerning these problems and their classification are based on the methods developed by Ac.G. Chitaia, the founder of Georgian Ethnographic School. They contain different methods of complex-intensive as well as generalization and historical characters. Analysis. Muslimized population (Tarakams, Kurds, Turks, and later Georgian Muslims) mostly lived in Akhalkalaki and Akhaltsikhe provinces before the exile. Prior to 1940, the religious and ethnic composition of the population was rather diverse. This area was inhabited by indigenous Christians and partly Islamized Georgians. They were later joined by sheltered Kurds, Turks, Armenians and Karapapakhs. Calling them “Meskhetian Turks” has a specific purpose and the term is artificially spread in Georgian society. This type of action does not happen in any other country. One may wonder if various governmental, non-governmental and international agencies that have appeared in Georgia like mushrooms after the rain, know about this fact. Or, maybe they know it but under the influence of the governing forces of “the new order” and wholesome funding they deliberately destroy the national identity and integrity of the centuries-old history of the Georgian nation. One should use the term “Muslimized Meskhetians” but never “Meskhetian Turks” (the diverse tribal muslim population exiled from Samtskhe-Javakheti) to refer to the population of several million indigenous muslimized Georgians who are living on their historic territory (Tao-Klarjeti, Kola- Artaani, Shavsheti, Lazistan, etc.), currently Turkey. Results. The research process highlights the following: according to the results of the study, it becomes possible to develop a number of recommendations which will help the multiethnic population of Samtskhe-Javakhethi live in a peaceful way and accelerate the adaptation and integration processes.

ÖLÜ/ÖLÜM ETRAFINDA GELİŞEN KÜLT İNANÇLAR VE GRUBUN YENİDEN BÜTÜNLEŞMESİ (SİNOP LALA KÖYÜ ÖRNEĞİ)

The death, which is the last basic incident of life in all over the world and all religions, stands at the core of the life as biological, sociological, anthropological , psychological fact. In this regard, the separation ceremonies are within the important phases of life in almost every society regardless of time and place and they are supported by some rituals that take their origins from tradition. Whereas the societies might have different attitudes towards the death, all of those societies’ common sense is deprivation. Various ceremonial practices and beliefs that are based on archaic times and that can be counted as cultic are evolved around the sense of deprivation towards a husband/wife, a friend or a relative. These practices form the connective side of the society/ group by sustaining emotional union to the individual with different religious/spiritual rituals. This research aims to identify the cultic beliefs preserving their nature in the sense of death, from the viewpoint that the practices in the sense of death/the dead are the connective sides of the society/ group in the village of Lala in Sinop, with Georgian people. The obtained findings in this context will be for clarifying the reflections of the sacred and cultural values of the people from archaic period on today’s world and the connective side of the social practices ongoing in this context.

DISPLACEMENT –ONE OF THE MAIN CHALLENGES FOR GEORGIA

The value of multiculturalism and diversity has long been greatest merit for Georgia. The issues of migrations, its difficulties and objections pose formidable challenges country has to deal with for centuries. For many years already effective and coherent attitude towards this subject have helped greatly to establish divers and liberalistic society. At the same time Georgia also is a country with a high rate of emigrants. Nowadays, because of country’s harsh economic condition, many people tend to leave Georgia to settle in more developed and economically advanced countries. Where they hope to lead easier live, get better education and healthcare and change the living condition for themselves and their families. In the following article we will give a brief description of countries migration policy and history, as well as conditions and ways of human coexistence, that forms interesting, complex and multiple society. Notwithstanding the obstacles, that regularly attends this subject, Georgian government attempts to find right way out of the problem. The government and the citizens understand that further development and independence of the country necessarily requires the consideration of multi-ethnic values. Subsequently, Georgia is an ethnically diverse country, where people of different ethnicity and nationality live peacefully side by side, work together, trade, demonstrate their individual and unique historical and ethnic customs and traditions, try to preserve their cultural heritage and develop. Long lasting practise shows how crucial the tolerance is for harmonious life of the society. To respect different religious beliefs and particular habits is a guarantee for developing civic consciousness and take the constructive step forward. Consequently, joining the European family to preserve human rights and became honourable member of that family is the main target for Georgian people.

RUSSIANIZATION POLICY OF TSARISM AND BULLYING IN GEORGIAN EDUCATIONAL SPACE ACCORDING TO THE GEORGIAN PRESS OF THE 80S AND 90S OF THE 19TH CENTURY GEORGIANS’ FIGHT FOR THE PROTECTION OF GEORGIAN LANGUAGE


 
 
 
 In 1801 after invading Georgia, Russia started to fight hard to break Georgian national consciousness, for this it was necessary to demolish the Georgian language. There are many noteworthy notes about the current situation in the magazines and newspapers of 80s and 90s of the 19th century which were published in Kutaisi. Here you will find information how the native language was prohibited, the study of Georgian children was restricted, and the schools were guided by Russians. "Mute Method" was introduced at schools. Russia tried to prove the unnecessity of the Georgian language. For example, if the number of Georgians in one of the educational institutions exceeded the number of other ethnicities, they tried not to find the learners who came from different parts of Georgia as Georgians in order to avoid the need for teaching Georgian language.At the same time, on the paper of the Georgian press you can find some speeches, protests. Some schools were closed. Georgians demanded the change of educational system. In general, all these served to protect the Georgian language and to strengthen its positions.Thus, in the 80s and 90s of the 19th century, the Georgian press leaders strictly criticized Russia's Tsarism educational policy because it did not meet the interests of the Georgian people. They thought that the content of the teaching should reflect the true nature of the people. It should be an active propagandist and conductor of national ideas.
 
 
 

ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL SITUATION IN THE ILIA ERA IN GEORGIA

The article offers a discussion of the socioeconomic processes in Georgia in the second half of 19th century characterized with significant changes in socioeconomic, political and cultural life of Georgian people. In the mentioned period, capitalistic production relations emerged earlier have developed and this was followed by fundamental changes in balance of power between classes, public thinking and sphere of material and mental life. Due to geo-strategic location of Georgia, the foreign relations were decisive for the social development of the country. Historically, the process of internal consolidation and national integration has permanently been delayed by the conquerors. Neighborhood relations with Russia have played the particular role in the foreign policies of Georgia.

Ethnicity and Power in the Soviet Union

Twenty years have passed since the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Up until the point of dissolution, the Soviet authorities and intellectual elite had attempted to build a community in order to unite all Soviet citizens in the spirit of socialist modernisation. Although it is difficult to demonstrate that ‘a Soviet nation’ was successfully created [1], the attempt to build such a nation can serve as a case study through which to examine nation-building processes for constructivists as well as modernists . In addition to socialist modernisation, the Soviet nation aimed to be identified as a state, which would make it similar to the political nations dominant in western countries. Contrary to western tradition, however, it was not a nation state that provided full rights for all its citizens, but rather a socialist state that was ‘ruled by workers and peasantry’. Nevertheless, the authorities aimed to give the Soviet nation the characteristics of a specific nation state. “It was a nation that in historical terms strived, or more accurately part of which strived, to form or proclaim a particular state” [2]. While at the time of proclaiming the USSR there was no such thing as the Soviet nation, it can be assumed that it was intended to become a constructed titular nation. The majority of national communities, even created ones, have an ethnic core. However academics cannot agree on the kind of state the USSR was, to what extent it took into account the ethnicity of its multinational population, how much it reflected the values, culture, and interests of its largest population group (i.e., the Russians) or even whether it was a Russian national state despite the strong influence of Russian ideology and politics. Some Russian academics, especially those in nationalistic circles (e.g., Valerij Solovej) as well as western scholars such as Terry Martin and Geoffrey Hosking stressed that Russians dominated demographically and politically. However, the USSR did not aim to nurture traditional Russian values. It rather fostered the deethnicisation of Russians and the ethnicisation of non-Russian. Another group of scientists, including those from post-Soviet states (e.g., Žambyl Artykbaev, Otar Džanelidze, and Georgij Siamasvili) as well as western scholars (e.g., Rogers Brubaker) concede that positive processes such as the allotment of territory to republics and other territorial units, the constitution of authority and administrative apparatus, and the formation of the elites once characterised the ethnic history of the USSR. All these processes, however, were dominated by a lack of sovereignty, a loss of national identity, and damage to the living environment. Georgia rather than the USSR has always been regarded by the Georgian people as their mother country. The Soviet Union, which was considered to be a voluntary union of equal republics, was in fact an artificial creation that non-Russian nations were forced to join. The majority of Georgians did not therefore claim the USSR as their homeland: ‘The USSR was for its nations a socio-political state not a homeland’ [3]. Non-Russian citizens in the Soviet Union perceived the Russians to be a state-building ‘nation’ and the USSR a Russian state. The Soviet authorities, who predicated internationalism on the Russian language and new Russian culture, actively combated ethnic nationalism (including Russian nationalism, which was associated with chauvinism and a tsarist legacy). Although Russkost was considered to be a remnant of a disgraceful past, it was nonetheless used as a tool to sovietise society. Indeed, Russian language and culture were both conducive to the assimilation of non-Russians. ‘The Great Russian nation’ was to be ‘the first among equals’ and thus Russia provided. Soviet state with certain features of ethnicity. However, Russian characteristics were never treated as instrumental to the USSR, because the aim was to form a new socialist, national community, that was beyond ethnicity, rather than to convert the citizens of the former USSR into Russians. Soviet ideology and science thus set the direction for nationality policy in the USSR, especially in terms of forming a Soviet nation. Based on the foregoing, the present paper identifies how the ethnic character of both the Soviet nation and the state.

MIKHAIL SAAKASHVILI’S REFORMS: THE INFLUENCE ON THE NATIONAL MINORITIES IN GEORGIA

The article is devoted to the issue of national and ethnic minorities in Georgia. The author analyzes the Azeri and Armenian minorities, the territorial development of the regions of their compact residence (Samtskhe-Javakheti and Kvemo-Kartli) and their secessionist potential. The author focuses on the sub-ethnic groups within the Georgian people: Megrelians, Swann, Laz, Kistinians and Yezidis. This paper presents statistics of ethno-national and linguistic issues. The author examines the development of post-Soviet Georgia and large-scale reforms implemented after the «Rose Revolution» including the sphere of interethnic relations. The conclusion concerns the future of Russian-Georgian relations in the light of Russia’s support for the single national minorities. The population of Abkhazia and South Ossetia isn’t the subject of this article.

The Implementation and Results of the Use of Social Media in the Republic of Georgia

The Republic of Georgia has begun a transition from old world economics to integrating social media and the Internet to provide a global presence for the country. Research shows that the Georgian people have significantly embraced social media as a means for conducting business and connecting with many countries on a global basis. Internet subscribers have continually increased in numbers; thus the numbers of social media participants has also increased. This paper addresses the history of Georgia, the current status of social media in Georgia, and the future for social media as it permeates the Georgian population. In order to maintain a robust economic recovery, Georgia citizens and businesses must continue to conduct business through social media pathways that will keep Georgia in the global market.