Subsurface Geological Structures Research Articles

Building Complex Seismic Velocity Models for Deep Learning Inversion

Training a deep learning inversion network usually requires hundreds of thousands of complex velocity models, which is labor-intensive and expensive to acquire. In this work, we develop a new framework to automatically generate various velocity models with common geological structures, such as folding layers, faults and salt bodies. There are three main modules in the proposed framework. The first module generates a folded model with a given number of layers; the other two modules can add faults and salt bodies onto the folded model to form a fault or salt model, respectively. To best simulate the shape of subsurface geological structures while ensuring a good application effect in deep learning inversion, we generate the structural model based on composition of several basic functions with recommended parameter ranges. Then the generated structural model will be assigned with velocity values based on assumptions of underground seismic velocity distribution. To investigate the application effect of the generated 3D models, we conduct a deep learning inversion test. Since currently there is no 3D deep learning inversion algorithms available, the latest 2D inversion network called SeisInvNet is used to test the feasibility of the randomly generated velocity models. Through the experiments, we can see that the 2D inversion results are consistent with the true models from the aspects of velocity values and geological structure shapes, which demonstrates the rationality of the designed 3D models. In the end, we further discuss the feasibility of applying the proposed 3D model dataset to train a 3D inversion network. This work paves the way for the development of 3D deep learning inversion methods.

Depth and Structural Parameters Determination of the Sedimentary Basin in Atmur Nuqra Area, South Eastern Desert, Egypt Using Aeromagnetic Data Analysis

The study area is located at the south of the eastern desert of Egypt between latitudes 24°N to 25°N and longitudes 33°E to 33°50'E covering an area of about 9407 km2. The study area is mainly covered with sediments whose age extends from the upper Cretaceous to the Quaternary, in addition to the presence of some basement rocks such as younger granites, metasediments and metagabbro. The research aims essentially to determine the thickness of the sedimentary basin by determining the depth to the top of basement and delineating the subsurface geological structures which affected this sedimentary basin. The Euler depth map exhibited that the north parts of the area have shallow depth values from 1000 m to 2000 m. The southern parts also show a shallow to moderate depths ranging from 1000 m to 2400 m. The deepest parts are located at the middle and at the western parts and are ranging in value from 3000 m to more than 4000 m. The horizontal derivative and tilt derivative techniques proved that the most effective trends all over the study area are NW-SE and NE-SW directions as mentioned in geologic lineaments map. The basement tectonic map shows clearly all the faults affected the area. It shows that there are many high blocks trending mainly in NW-SE and NE-SW directions. All high blocks surround a large sedimentary basin reaches depth of about more than 4000 m. All the results produced from 2D-modeling illustrate that the sedimentary basinal area (G2) is the deeper basin all over the area and it is controlled by some faults and fractures. 3D inversion was used and resulted in that the area of study have many high blocks at shallow to moderate depths which surrounding a large sedimentary basinal area with very deep depth values. All the techniques which applied in this research led to that the largest sedimentary basin is located at the center of the study area with NW-SE trend and depth value of about 4000 m.

Joint tomography of multi-cross-hole and borehole-to-surface seismic data for karst detection

Two-dimensional (2D) cross-hole seismic tomography is widely used in karst exploration. However, this method only obtains subsurface geological structures from the profiles of two adjacent wells and cannot acquire geological information from the lateral profile direction. The tomographic imaging area and accuracy are also limited owing to sparse ray density in the near-surface area. This approach is therefore not conducive to the spatial identification and evaluation of subsurface karst structures. To address this problem, we conducted multi-hole combined seismic tomography experiments and obtained high-density and high-quality seismic spatial data using an optimized observation system and acquisition parameters. We propose a new method of joint tomography of multi-cross-hole and borehole-to-surface seismic data. We performed 2D seismic tomography inversion by combining cross-hole data with borehole and surface data based on the theory of seismic tomography, and then used the data fusing from multiple wells based on the theory of kriging method. A pseudo-three-dimensional (3D) spatial velocity field of the experimental site is established. The results show that (1) the combined borehole and surface data provide richer ray-tracing information than the cross-hole dataset alone, (2) the pseudo-3D spatial velocity field and spatial distribution of seismic anomalies (karst) can be obtained using the proposed method, and (3) a comparison with actual borehole logging data verifies the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed method in obtaining subsurface geological structures and detecting the spatial distribution of karst, which has significant practical and application potential.

Geological and structural characterizations of a basaltic environment by vertical electrical soundings and multifractal modeling techniques in Deir El-Adas Area, Yarmouk Basin, Syria

Concentration-number (C-N) fractal modeling technique is adapted and newly proposed to interpret vertical electrical sounding (VES) measurements. This proposed technique is practiced herein on a case study taken from Deir El-Adas, Southern Syria, where four VES geoelectrical profiles (Pro-1, Pro-2, Pro-3, and Pro-4) are interpreted. The general targeting concept of this technique is to use the threshold break points determined by the use of C-N log–log plots to indicate the passage from geoelectrical layer to another one. Different apparent resistivity population ranges are accordingly well determined for the treated geoelectrical data. Those apparent resistivity ranges are consequently used to establish 2D and 3D semi quantitative interpretations of the studied geoelectrical profiles for different fixed spacings AB/2. The established geoelectrical sections clarified the subsurface geological structures and contributed in distinguishing and classifying lateral and vertical different type of basaltic features in the study area. The fractal C-N model can be therefore used to calibrate the ID traditional inversion VES interpretation, particularly in basaltic environments, characterized by sharp and rapid resistivity variations. This calibration is one of the advantages of this fractal technique. This technique is therefore recommended to be applied in other similar basaltic environments.

Structural and hydrothermal alteration mapping related to orogenic gold mineralization in part of Kushaka schist belt, North-central Nigeria, using airborne magnetic and gamma-ray spectrometry data

This paper presents an interpretation of airborne magnetic and gamma-ray spectrometry data over a part of the Kushaka schist belt of Nigeria with a view to assess the sub-surface structural framework and hydrothermal alteration haloes that are related to orogenic gold mineralization in the study area. The geophysical analyses performed to improve the quality of the aeromagnetic data for better understanding of the subsurface geology were reduction to the equator, upward continuation, total horizontal derivative, analytical signal, source edge detection, tilt-angle derivative of total horizontal derivative. The analyses performed on the airborne gamma-ray spectrometry data were made on K/eTh, F parameter and deviation of ideal K values (Kd). Deep-seated, brittle–ductile shear/fracture zones with characteristic depth of 428.0–607.6 m and area extent of 15.5 km by 6.5 km that were delineated in the area coincide with beehive of artisanal miners exploiting gold deposits. In this study, subsurface geologic structures, specifically dykes/faults, that trend in the ENE–WSW direction constitute a first-order control on orogenic gold mineralization in the study area. The hydrothermally altered zones mapped in the area indicated they are structurally controlled and closely associated with orogenic gold mineralization. Apart from geologic structural evidences that are controlling orogenic gold mineralization, this study has indicated that hydrothermal alteration mapping is equally important for a promising orogenic gold mineralization mapping.

Analysis of Remote Sensing, Gravity, and Magnetotelluric Data on Geothermal Fields in Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU) District, South Sumatra

Geothermal energy is a clean alternative energy resource. Southern Ogan Komering Ulu (OKU), South Sumatera, is a geothermal prospect area because of the interaction between the Eurasian and Indo-Australian tectonic plates. It causes geological structures growth and the activity of volcanism in the area. Based on geological data, geothermal in southern OKU is indicated by the existence of 40–93 ºC temperature hot springs. Geological data based on remote sensing methods can determine the lineament. Geophysical data with gravity and magnetotelluric can identify the type of rock and the subsurface geological structure based on rock density and resistivity. Based on geological and gravity data indicates the presence of geological formations lead northwest-southeast, which is estimated as the geothermal fluid pathway with the suitability to the location of hot springs. The magnetotelluric data shows the geothermal reservoir rocks (clastic sedimentary rock) located at (-500)–(-2.500) meters depth with 30–200 Ωm resistivity. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17977/um024v5i12020p022

Topographically and hydrologically signatures express subsurface geological structures in an arid region: a modified integrated approach using remote sensing and GIS

This study aims to investigate the ability of remote sensing sensors to map subsurface fault zones with the support of hydrological information collected from boreholes. We first extract linear features crosscut and drain the study area and its adjoining mountainous areas from the Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR), the Landsat 8 images and a set of slope and shaded relief maps derived from the PALSAR DEM using visual interpretation and D8 algorithm. To delineate displacements of subsurface faults were then, interpreted from interpolated maps of groundwater level and aquifer thickness. The subsurface faults are well evident in the form palaeochannels, abruption change in flow direction and the change in the groundwater table and aquifer thickness. The extracted surface linear features were compared against those that exist in the geological map. The result showed that the subsurface geological structures can be indicated from remote sensing and hydrological data.

Imaging Subsurface Structure of an Urban Area Based on Diffuse-Field Theory Concept Using Seismic Ambient Noise

Single station ambient noise measurement in campaign mode has of late gained a huge popularity among geo-scientists. Herein, we present results of ambient vibration analysis, executed in a highly populated urban area covering 47 survey points. The resonance frequency estimates range from 0.5 to 3 Hz, as found from H/V. Taking H/V curve as input for retrieving subsurface information, we deploy diffuse field assumption (DFA) theory. The obtained shear wave velocity from the inversion of H/V curve through DFA approach provides evidence of the complex nature of the subsurface geological structures. Identifying six characteristic 2D cross-sections of the entire area, we attain prevalence of a low-velocity intermediate layer with velocity ranging from 128–192 m/s. On the contrary, a relatively high-velocity layer is also obtained (279–471 m/s) which can be treated as sedimentary deposits (may be for some sites as basin basement). The attained results, when extended to a 3D shear wave profile, tally excellently with estimated frequency distribution and its corresponding links with depth wise strata, accompanied by a topographical profile of the surveyed locations. All findings are comprehensively analyzed and interpreted as a proof of concept of implementation of DFA approach towards retrieving subsurface information.

IDENTIFIKASI PATAHAN DI DESA TAMAN AYU KECAMATAN GERUNG KABUPATEN LOMBOK BARAT MENGGUNAKAN METODE GEOMAGNET

This research aimed to identify the presence of faults in Taman Ayu Village, Gerung District, West Lombok Regency by mapping the magnetic field. The fault outcrops found near this location becomes the reason to suspected the fault existence that reaching residents, farming area and access roads, so it is necessary to study the type, depth and direction of the fault. Measurements were made on 11 lines with a length of each line is 3 km. Each line of measurement is 300 m apart from each other and the distance between measurement points is 50 m, 100 m, and 200 m depending on the distance from the target location. Separation between regional anomalies and residual anomalies using the upward continuation method at an altitude of 1000 m. Qualitative interpretation of residual anomalies results in low anomalies with values from -890.9 nT to 897.3 nT. Quantitative interpretation of the five cross sections by the inverse modeling method with Oasis Montaj 6.4.2 software resulting subsurface geological structures in the form of normal fault. This normal fault is at a depth of 30 m to 480 m which is composed of layers of silt, sandy silt, sand, clay and breccia. The fault passes through Gapuk Village, Taman Ayu and Kebon Ayu and passes through the highway in Northeast – Southwest direction

Geological structure identification in Tulehu geothermal prospect area using gravity data analysis

Tulehu is one of geothermal prospect areas located in east Indonesia, which is in Maluku Province. The geological condition of the area is dominated by quaternary volcanic rocks like lava flow, lava dome, and pyroclastic flow, which probably associated with Mt. Eriwakang and Mt. Huwe. But the area is mostly covered by limestone, especially in the southern part of the area. The geothermal prospect of Tulehu is indicated by the occurrence of hot springs spotted along Banda Fault, Banda-Hatuasa Fault, and Huwe Fault in the southern part of Tulehu. In order to understand the subsurface geological structure and its correlation to Tulehu geothermal system, gravity survey was conducted. Gravity survey was carried out using Scintrex CG-5 gravimeter with total of 130 stations were measured with 500 m spacing. The result of CBA and residual gravity indicated the existence of low gravity anomaly at the Mount Eriwakang, while the high gravity anomaly found around several structures obtained from Remote Sensing. Several structures were detected by FHD method, those are Huwe Fault, Banda Fault, Tulehu Fault, and Wayari Fault. Based on SVD method, the type of faults are identified. These structures also supported through 2-D gravity forward modeling. The 2-D gravity modeling results several layers that build the geothermal system of Tulehu, those are Limestone with density of 1.79 g/cc, Pyroclastic with density of 2.67 g/cc, Andesitic Lava with density of 2.6 g/cc, claycap with density of 2.2 g/cc, and Basement with density of 2.81 g/cc.

Active faults and bedrock detection with super-high-density electrical resistivity imaging

Electrical resistivity imaging can reveal the spatial information of subsurface geological structures, especially active faults and bedrock. In this study, we introduced an improved super-high-density resistivity method, based on network parallel technique with an exploration mode similar to seismic method. The proposed technique simplifies the conventional electrical arrays, e.g., Dipole-Dipole and Wenner-Schlumberger arrays into AM and ABM arrays and enhances the data acquisition efficiency. A comparison between the two arrays and conventional ones revealed that AM and ABM array data can be transformed into all kinds of existing electrical arrays. We performed six 2D electrical resistivity surveys on a construction site at Yantai (Shandong Province, Eastern China) with AM and ABM array of 5-m electrode spacing to produce a ~ 2.5-m spatial resolution. For the inversion routine, the least squares method was used to obtain the subsurface electrical structures for objective interpretation. Consequently, a set of electrical anomalies associated with the active faults and bedrock interface were identified with four resistivity tomographic profiles. In these resistivity profiles, the electrical anomalies show good correlations with the drilling results. Therefore, the super-high-density electrical resistivity method is useful for quick evaluation of subsurface geological structures in an urbanized area and provides more precise and faster data acquisition than conventional techniques.

Application of aeromagnetic data to map subsurface structural features in Ewekoro, Southwestern Nigeria

In this study, aeromagnetic data were interpreted and analyzed in order to map the subsurface geological structures at Ewekoro, southwestern, Nigeria. To accomplish this goal, some image enhancement techniques were applied to the magnetic data by which concealed subsurface structures were revealed. The total magnetic intensity data were reduced to the magnetic pole using Fourier transformation technique. The results of these filtering techniques were displayed with a number of maps. From the interpreted maps, a number of lineaments majorly trending in NE–SW direction were identified. These lineaments were indications of faults or fractures due to the displacements that might have arisen from tectonic events in the area. The estimated depths from the power spectrum technique suggest the presence of two magnetic sources the shallow and deep sources at depth of 0.02–0.75 km, respectively. The deep source indicates the basement rocks underlying the sedimentary cover in the area.

Integrated geophysical techniques for subsurface imaging of active deformation across the Himalayan Frontal Thrust in Singhauli, Kala Amb, India

Non-invasive geophysical techniques employed across the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) at Singhauli in the north-western Frontal Himalaya to understand shallow subsurface geological structures and their nature in the context of active tectonics. The combination of high-resolution Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) and Multi-channel Analysis of Surface Waves (MASW) techniques with the different acquisition parameters found to be beneficial in gaining high-resolution images of shallow subsurface geological structures. The contact zone of resistivity obtained between <134 and >134 Ωm suggests the juxtaposition of dissimilar lithological units explained as two faults dipping to the northwest related to the HFT. The average separation between Fault 0 and Fault I is 12m which in general agreement with the trench excavation survey. The GPR radargram over a length of 45m show offset reflectors at a horizontal distance of ~12–15m close to the active deformation zone. The horizontal reflectors abruptly truncate across two northerly dipping planes. The 2D Vs section (MASW1&2) exhibited dipping attitude of the litho units (with different velocity zones) in the northeast direction which are also consistent with the local geological setting. Prominent liquefaction feature identified in the ERT section specifically with the 1 and 1.5m electrode spacing show explicit expression of its existence due to contrasting resistivity ranging between 100 and 450 Ωm. A strong correlation has been established between the field based geological observations, carried out earlier in this area through a trench excavation survey, with the present work using geophysical techniques. The integrated approach found to be highly beneficial in those areas where contrasting sub lithological units exist in terms of their physical properties. This study argues for judicious use of the ERT, GPR and MASW techniques to delineate shallow subsurface geology across various active faults in the Himalayan terrain to comprehend the active deformation related to large magnitude paleoearthquakes and earthquake hazard assessment.

THE EFFECT OF WEST QURNA OILFIELD ON THE PART OF EUPHRATES RIVER, NORTHERN BASRA GOVERNORATE, IRAQ: GEOMORPHIC AND STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY INTEGRATED ANALYSIS

AbstractThe study utilized geomorphic and structural geology analysis integrated analysis to understand the effect of West Qurna Oil Field (or West Qurna Structure) on the part of Euphrates river route, whether it’s related to neotectonic activity or it’s a natural phenomenon. The Euphrates River Drainage Basin is located in the northern part of the Basra governorate in the south of the Mesopotamian Basin. The channel of the river is mostly straight and characterized by large loops. The channel sinuosity of this river system is analyzed in order to draw conclusions on the neotectonic activity of the region. The original status of the river thalweg was digitized from recent satellite images using the new Landsat 8 Scenes. Sinuosities at different sample section lengths were computed in a GIS software environment ArcGIS 10, providing so-called ‘sinuosity spectra’ for each point of the analyzed using a moving-window method and different window sizes channels. High sinuosity sections were correlated to geological subsurface structures of West Qurna Oil Field identified, indicating their neotectonic activity. A structural analysis (geometric and genetic analyses) performed to identify its type, origin and to find its relevance to main regional tectonic events. The geometric analysis detect that the bending fold mechanism (vertical force) could responsible about form West Qurna oil. Thus, thinning feature associated with West Qurna Oil Field. This mechanism could be connected with growth of salt structure of Hormuz Salt below it as confirmed by negative residual anomaly associated with West Qurna Oil Field.

Studi Identifikasi Struktur Geologi Bawah Permukaan Untuk Mengetahui Sistem Sesar Berdasarkan Analisis First Horizontal Derivative (FHD), Second Vertical Derivative (SVD), Dan 2,5D Forward Modeling Di Daerah Manokwari Papua Barat

In general, Manokwari has a geological structure that is in the form of a folding area found in the highlands of the mountains. Among the creases, there is a fault up and the fault down. In coastal or marine areas found many reefs and corals. The study of gravity was conducted in the Manokwari area of West Papua with the aim to know the subsurface geological structures based on FHD (First Horizontal Derivative), SVD (Second Vertical Derivative) and 2.5D Forward Modeling on the residual anomaly maps of the study area. The results showed that the research area has Bouguer Anomaly value ranged from 4 mGal to 96 mGal with the low anomaly at the left side of the research area lengthwise relatively in north-west to south-east direction, the middle-value anomaly spreads in the west-east area of research area, high anomaly scattered in the northern part of the research area. The results of the 2.5D subsurface modeling and the SVD and FHD analysis indicated the presence of a Thrust Fault on the C-C’ cross-section, on the B-B’ cross-section there is a Diorite Lembai intrusion with the density value is 2.75 gr/cc, whereas the A-A' cross-section which intersects with Sorong fault were not found any fault or rock intrusion based on observed gravity data of the research area.

Surface and Crustal Study Based on Digital Elevation Modeling and 2-D Gravity Forward Modeling in Thandiani to Boi Areas of Hazara Region, Pakistan

Gravity data indicates that there is a regular relation between crustal structure, crustal density (composition), and surface ascension. In order to delineate surface and subsurface geological structure features, and to calculate the thickness variation of the crust and sedimentary/metasedimentary wedges, integrated approach of Geographic Information System (GIS) i.e. digital elevation models (DEMs) and two-dimensional forward modeling of gravity data were utilized, which provide the best results for the primary objectives. Tectonically, the study area lies in the Lesser Himalayas as well as to an extent in the sub-Himalaya, more concretely in the western limb of Hazara Kashmir Syntaxis. Topographic data was accumulated in XYZ coordinates utilizing point heights method, and DEMs generation, manipulation, interpretation, and visualization process were directed to surfer-15 and ArcGIS software. Determinately the visualization of surface geological structure in the form of DEMs were proposed. The gravity stations in single contour mode have been quantified by using Scintrex CG-5 gravity meter. The collected gravity data was processed by standardizing corrections, two-dimensional forward modeling along with gravity profile were utilized and bouguer anomaly map and gravity model was computed utilizing bouguer density of 2.4 g/cm3, where the subsurface structures are demarcated by the bouguer anomaly and gravity model. In summary this research has allowed the validation of surface and subsurface geological structure visualization. Digital elevation models provide a defensive prediction of the geological structure of the regional surface. The gravity model demarcated a series of stratigraphic units with density boundaries within the basement. The gravity model also suggests that the thickness of sedimentary/metasedimentary wedge in Thandiani area is 11.48 km and in Boi area, the thickness elongates to about 14.43 km. The total thickness of crust in Thandiani and Boi area is 49.53 km and 52.43 km respectively.

The use of anomaly data in identifying faults in Sedoa village, Poso district

A magnitude (Mw) 6.6 Earthquake occurring on 29 May 2017 in Poso shows that there are active faults in these regions. In addition to Palu-Koro fault which is the major fault in the island of Sulawesi, one of secondary faults that may trigger earthquakes is a fault in Lore Utara Subdistrict, Poso District. This fault has been identified using magnetic anomaly in Sedoa Village Lore Utara Subdistrict. A measurement was done to obtain magnetic field intensity data and measurement time at base stations and position data at mobile stations. The data obtained was subjected to IGRF correction and diurnal variation correction. The result of the research shows different susceptibility (k) values with 0.00017 SI for clay rocks, 0.0209 SI for muddy sandstone, and 0.05 SI for granite rocks. This research also shows the existence of subsurface geological structures in Sedoa Village, Poso District, in the form of two normal faults in different directions. The first fault runs from Southeast toward Northwest and the second one runs from Northeast to Southwest.

A APPLICATION OF LINEAMENT DENSITY AND GRAVITY METHODS TO DETECTING FRACTURE AND FAULT LANE IN THE TAMPUSU VOLCANIC FIELD (NORTH SULAWESI, INDONESIA)

Tampusu Mountain (± 1500 m above sea level) is located between two famous geological tourism areas in North Sulawesi, namely Lake Linow and Lake Tondano. The position of Mount Tampusu, as well as the presence of geothermal manifestations in the surrounding area is interesting to study its geological aspects both on the surface and below the surface. This study aims to determine the existence of surface geological structures based on line density, and also to determine the presence and direction of subsurface geological structures based on gravity anomaly data in Tampusu Volcanic area. The fault and fracture density method is used to map the surface geological structure, while the gravity method is used to obtain information about the geological structure of the Tampusu volcanic area between the crater of Lake Linow and the Lake Tondano caldera. The existence of a fault is known to be west of the Lake Tondano caldera which is an extension from east to southeast of the Linow Lake crater. There is a relationship between the distribution map of the bouguer anomaly value and the map of lineament density along the Lake Linow crater to Lake Tondano caldera.

Seismic imaging of subsurface geological structures by Kirchhoff’s migration based on extended Born approximation

Complex seismic signatures are generated because of the multifaceted nature of the subsurface. These features make the interpretation very complex. To understand the seismic behaviour, different numerical tools are available. In this present study, an attempt has been made to demonstrate both the modelling and imaging aspects of these complex subsurface features commonly encountered in petroleum exploration. The present work is an extended form of the Born approximation by using Green’s function based asymptotic ray theory. Subsequently, Kirchhoff’s depth migration has been applied to generate seismic shot gathers over structural as well as stratigraphic traps. From this analysis, it is observed that the technique is able to efficiently migrate both the structural and stratigraphic traps. The proposed technique also intends to handle strong velocity variation and amplitude restoration. However, some noise in terms of over-critical reflection has been observed in the depth migrated section corresponding to pinch-out and unconformity respectively.

Delineation of Gold Mineral Potential Zone Using High Resolution Aeromagnetic Data Over Part of Kano State, Nigeria

The study of the geometry and kinematics of deep geological structures, bearing mineralization has advanced greatly by the aggressive progress of geophysical techniques over the last decades. The mineralization zones located in the Shanono local government area of Kano state Nigeria has its genesis controlled by shear zones. This research was aimed at delineating and characterizing subsurface geologic structures around the study area. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis of aeromagnetic data has provided defined distinct pattern of the magnetic signatures. Euler solution of the aeromagnetic data with structural index one, revealed the presence of the major tectonic trends of anomalies in the NE-SW and NW-SE directions. The trends of few of these structures are observed to be similar to fracture orientations in the Nigerian basement complex. These structures control the emplacement of the gold mineralization as these provides the pathways to flow of mineral rich fluid within the host rocks of the study area.