Geographical Thinking Research Articles

Introduction to perspectives on developing geospatial expertise symposium

ABSTRACT Geospatial expertise draws on and recognizes a vast array of seemingly unrelated interconnections allowing the geographer to find solutions to otherwise incomprehensible problems. Geospatial thinking involves both time and space, acknowledges cause-and-effect relationships of geographic phenomena at multiple scales, and recognizes the impact of spatial and temporal scale on processes. The complexity of geographic thinking necessitates an equally complex set of learning experiences that collectively are characterized by the professional geographer. Due to the inherent complexity of geospatial expertise, its nuanced relationship to spatial thinking, and a lack of research on how individuals attain geospatial expertise, we organized an interdisciplinary group of experts to present their perspectives on developing geospatial expertise in this special edition. In this introduction, we review geospatial expertise and distinguish it from spatial thinking, review research on developing geospatial expertise, and end with recommendations for future research. Through these reviews and recommendations, this introduction provides background context for the articles in this special edition and elucidates their connections. Given the complexity of geospatial expertise, it is only through connecting researchers and educators across multiple disciplines that the nature of one of the most integrative professional disciplines – that of the geographer – can be fully understood.

Breaking down the complexity of geographical thinking: a European perspective

ABSTRACT The development of geographical thinking is often considered an essential outcome of geography education, yet its application within various school settings often falls short. This article addresses this discrepancy by deconstructing the concept of geographical thinking, aiming to facilitate its comprehension for educators in lower and upper secondary schools. The study applies thematic analysis to data collected from semi-structured interviews with European geography education experts. The findings reveal the interconnected dimensions of geographical thinking – content, procedural and affective – and the importance of factual knowledge as its basis. Moreover, the article offers various strategies and examples for fostering its development in schools based on the perspectives of the interviewed experts.

Climate Change in Secondary School Classrooms Using Geographic Information Technologies as A Learning Tool

Objective: The main objective of the elaboration of these materials is to verify if their use in the classrooms of Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) and Baccalaureate facilitates the acquisition of key competences and improves the geographic learning of the students. It seeks to implement a model of competency learning that makes use of Geographic Information Technologies (TIG) to develop spatial analysis and understanding skills in students. Theoretical references: The theoretical framework is based on the recommendations of the Council of the European Union on the use of good practices and digital technologies in education. The concepts of climate change and sustainable development are considered, as well as specific competences related to geographical thinking and the use of TIG. Methodology: Educational materials have been designed and used in classes of 1st and 3rd of ESO, dividing students into subgroups that used and did not use the materials to compare results. Initial, intermediate and final assessments were conducted to measure the evolution of learning. The materials include maps and applications to solve geographical problems and didactic strategies of the bimodal curriculum are used to promote key competences. Results and Conclusion: The use of the materials has significantly improved the students' learning competencies, although the objectives have not been fully achieved. The average acquisition of competences went from 2.79 to 4.36 on a scale from 0 to 10. A noticeable improvement was observed in 10 fields that were previously below 4 points, now at 5 or more. However, students showed more difficulties in areas such as orderly communication and critical evaluation of their approaches and those of their peers. Research Implications: Research suggests that the use of TIG in secondary education can be an effective tool to improve the geographic and analytical competencies of students. In addition, the importance of integrating these technologies in a way that supports geographic learning rather than focusing exclusively on the management of the tools is highlighted. Originality/Value: This study presents an innovative approach to using TIG in secondary education to develop key competencies in students. The originality lies in the combination of advanced technologies with a competency approach in the teaching of geography, which could serve as a model for future educational applications in other contexts.

Fostering Flexible Minds: The Effect of Probing Questions in Enhancing Divergent Thinking in Geography

Fostering Flexible Minds: The Effect of Probing Questions in Enhancing Divergent Thinking in Geography

Geographical thinking in geography education: a systematic review

Geographical thinking is often regarded as one of the most crucial outcomes of geography education. Nevertheless, with the growing variety of definitions and conceptualizations surrounding geographical thinking, the entire concept is becoming increasingly intricate and abstract, gradually acquiring a degree of internal shallowness. To address this complexity and enhance the clarity regarding these diverse definitions and conceptualizations, a systematic review was conducted. Following the PRISMA guidelines, a final selection of 50 records including empirical articles, books and book chapters, were analyzed. The main findings reveal insights on temporal development, spatial distribution, and possible classifications of geographical-thinking definitions and conceptualizations. The article concludes with a discussion of possible implications for educational practice and related recommendations for future research.

Plowing New Fields of Scholarship in Social Studies: Planting New Seeds With Civic, Economic, and Geographic Thinking

This manuscript is the introductory article for the special issue of the Journal of Social Studies Research titled Teaching Disciplinary Thinking, Literacy, and Argumentation Skills. In it, the authors provide an historical overview of disciplinary thinking as outlined by Edwin Fenton and Sam Wineburg. They talk about how the C3 Framework is a melding of a focus on disciplinary thinking outlined by Fenton and Wineburg with the emphasis on preparing K-12 students for their future roles as democratic citizens as stressed by scholars like Shirley Engle. Then, the focus of the manuscript shifts to highlight the underdeveloped areas of disciplinary thinking in civics, geography, and economics. The authors define economic, civic, and geographic thinking and provide habits of mind for each of these disciplines along with classroom activities for each. They close with arguments for why K-12 social studies teachers and social studies education scholars should focus on developing K-12 students’ civic, economic, and geographic thinking skills.

GeoCapabilities Approach to Climate Change Education: Developing an Epistemic Model for Geographical Thinking

Multiple perspectives on geographical thinking are lacking in the teaching of climate change in school geography. This study establishes an epistemic model through a co-construction design to support geography teachers’ curriculum making with respect to climate change. We developed the preliminary model with four main geographical perspectives, including natural scientific, humanistic, social scientific, and posthuman perspectives, by drawing on studies in academic geography. Based on interviews with nine geography education researchers who have been involved in the GeoCapabilities project, we examined the educational potentials of multiple geographical perspectives in developing student’s capabilities to react to climate change.

Towards ‘a progressive sense of thick time’ and the future of geographical thinking

In this commentary, I reflect on a ‘nascent temporal turn’ in geography and its future possibilities. I draw on and extend Kitchin's (2023) concept of ‘a progressive sense of time’ by juxtaposing it with other temporal frameworks such as ‘thick time’ (Datta, 2022) as well as practices of temporal politics such as ‘relational remembering’ (Hunfeld, 2022) and ‘anticipatory action’ (Anderson, 2010). I also draw upon the temporal politics of labour among the Gorkhas, an ethno-racial community in Darjeeling, a colonial hill station in India. I argue and show that the Gorkhas connect their resistance against external platforms such as ride-hailing and food delivery platforms with their longstanding subnationalist struggles for a separate state to reverse past colonial injustices and reconfigure their future. I reflect on how the temporal politics of labour among Gorkhas and the concept of a ‘progressive sense of thick time’ not only inform each other but also open up future pathways for geographical thinking and praxis.

The Effect of Mind Mapping Strategy on ‎Developing Analytical ‎Thinking in Geography

The Effect of Mind Mapping Strategy on ‎Developing Analytical ‎Thinking in Geography

Rethinking ‘causality’ in quantitative human geography

AbstractCausality is at the core of much contemporary discussion in social sciences, philosophy, and computer science—from the establishment of basic definitions of causality to developing methods for causal inference, this discussion is increasingly finding voice within geographical literature. However, geographers have long discussed (and differed) about the role “causality” plays in our work. We present a history of contemporary definitions of causality arising from philosophy and examine how these intellectual currents interact with past and present geographical thinking about causal relations. In particular, we focus on how new thinking about counterfactual causality can help re‐route inquiry around a well‐known impasse: law‐based causality in geography. In other words, while different perspectives around “laws” of geography exist, we argue that it is more productive to put aside these differences and find common ground in counterfactual causal thinking. To demonstrate, we outline new kinds of scholarship enabled by counterfactual causality and contemporary challenges that counterfactual causality faces in spatial analysis. Throughout, we refer interested readers to contemporary work on spatial causal inference and methods useful for scholars interested in analysing causal relationships in geographical systems.

Geographic-inquiry on virtual environment mobile application to support fieldwork based on blended learning

<span lang="EN-US">Implementing geography learning using the blended learning model is challenging for most geography teachers because this subject is ‘hands-on’ and needs to be learned directly in a real environment using fieldwork. This study aimed to test the pedagogical effectiveness of the geographic-inquiry on virtual environment (GIVE) application in supporting fieldwork based on blended learning to improve students’ geographical thinking. This study used a quasi-experimental method involving 216 high school students from three schools. The paired sample t-test (Sig. 2-tailed 0.000) shows that GIVE has a pedagogical influence on students’ geographical thinking. GIVE also offers a big effect size (Cohen’s d=1.37). The technology and the right smartphone application can help develop a virtual environment close to a real one, so fieldwork and hands-on learning activities can be carried out in blended learning; this helps to increase the quality of geography learning.</span>

Exploring German High School Students’ Conceptual Learning Pathways of Space and Place

Space and place, fundamental concepts in geography, uniquely contribute to the development of students’ geographical thinking. Despite this, these concepts are underrepresented in German geography classrooms, partly due to a distinct lack of empirical evidence concerning the learning processes associated with learning complex geographical concepts. This study employed videography to explore how n = 64 grade twelve students from various school types in Germany develop a more sophisticated understanding of space and place during a 90 min. teaching experiment. To delve into the micro-level of students’ learning processes, qualitative content analysis was employed to analyse the data. The subsequent detailed reconstruction of an individual learning pathway unveiled several pivotal moments. Notably, the concepts demonstrated significant potential for restructuring students’ existing knowledge into a more conceptual and systematic framework. Moreover, barriers to learning were identified as well. For example, conceptual interferences between the concepts of space/place and other geographical key concepts such as sustainability were observed, partially impeding the formation of a clear conceptual framework in students’ minds. The results provide insights for teaching implications, such as emphasising a single key concept to avoid conceptual interferences, and suggest further research avenues, including longitudinal studies to empirically derive learning progressions related to space and place.

Brain Science and Geographic Thinking: A Review and Research Agenda for K-3 Geography

How does a child learn to read a map? In 2007, the authors of an article in the Journal of Geography proposed a tentative list of eight “modes of spatial reasoning” that children may use to organize their perceptions of information on a map. As an update, this article has short descriptions of these modes, brief reviews of research since 2007, and some suggestions of topics for future investigation. This article includes a brief look at some implications for teaching math and reading, followed by an extended report about a classroom activity that underscores the main point about the parallel perception and processing of different kinds of spatial information. A technical appendix has a more detailed summary of the process used to identify and classify the modes of spatial reasoning.

Creating the Conditions for Geographic Conceptual Development in Post-Primary Students through Collaborative Guided Inquiry

This paper explores the potential for a collaborative guided inquiry task to stimulate geographic thinking using core geographic concepts of ‘location’, ‘distance and direction’, ‘scale’, ‘symbols’, ‘relative location’ and ‘slope and topography.’ The guided inquiry began with a visit to a park, with students then applying geographic thinking to redesign the park in a way that optimised utility for various user groups. The data generated included student work samples and video recordings of student groups as they worked through the task. The results show that the task design facilitated a deeper understanding of geographic concepts, including spatial relationships, connections and interactions. Furthermore, the collaborative nature of the task prompted students to use skills of explaining, negotiating and justifying their decisions. A critical feature of this analysis is the role that the teacher has in providing specialised guidance to support geographic thinking based on the needs of each group. The study highlights the value of practical, real-world experiences in geography education to learn, discuss and explore geographic concepts, enabling development of critical thinking, reasoning and problem-solving skills.

From globalisation to the planetary: Towards a critical framework of planetary thinking in geography

AbstractWith climate change and pandemics, the last few years has ushered in a planetary age. Moreover, the concept of the ‘globalisation’—a totalising and capitalist‐centric concept that homogenises the entire planet into a territory to conquer—has become incapable of adequately accounting for the planetary events taking place. To date, geographical literature has used the term ‘planetary’ in important, but disparate ways; and in so doing, underplaying the emancipatory potential the concept has in resisting the totalising concept of the ‘globalisation’. This paper looks to the wider humanities and social science to offer four propositions—materiality, human as praxis, antinational and safeguarding—the planetary can be more coherently conceptualised geographically.

The evolution of global cross-border R&D investment: A network analysis integrating geographical thinking

As one of the manifestations of economic globalization, cross-border research and development (R&D) investment of multinational enterprises (MNEs) has become an important way for innovation resources to flow in the world and constitute a worldwide R&D network. The country's position within the network has undergone a gradual evolution, but fewer studies have concentrated on the alterations to the network structure they have brought about and the factors affecting them. Our study of global cross-border R&D investment sheds light on the interactions of the global network within its singular context of country-level determinants, its internal network structure and geographical patterns. The findings suggest that global cross-border R&D investment has formed a stable geographical distribution pattern, and a complete but heterogeneous network structure, including a hierarchical structure and a core-periphery structure, while country features such as technological strength, skill levels, market potential, and economic development not only set the pace of cross-border R&D investment, but that they also influence both the network structure and the power positions of each node. Implications are discussed.

Rendering the future governable: Navigating temporality and uncertainty in Oslo’s climate transformation

This paper examines the procedures through which climate change can be rendered governable in the present. Climate change has generally been approached as an abstract, global, and long-term problem, thereby disconnecting it from the places and times in which decisions are made. Relational thinking in geography has articulated the local and regional levels of climate governance, hence foregrounding the practices through which the climate is situated in concrete local and organisational contexts. However, in time climate change has remained an abstract and long-term problem. This calls for studies of how the need for rapid climate action can be established in the present, and how climate governance can be aligned with the temporal rhythms in which organisations operate. This paper examines Oslo’s “climate budgets”, an innovative governance tool which integrates climate planning into the regular municipal budgeting cycle. It brings attention to the practices through which different temporalities of climate action are aligned, how climate change is rendered legible, and how uncertainties are managed. Drawing on the literatures on temporality and governmentality, it develops a conceptual approach to assess the practices through which responsibility for global, long-term concerns can be articulated in the present.

Taking the spatialization of heterodox economics to the next level. States, cities and money

In this note, I argue that the search for a better articulation between financial geography and heterodox economics can benefit from an explicit focus on the relations between states, cities and money. After illustrating some important insights derived from the cross-fertilization between financial geography and monetary heterodox economics, I discuss how the specific inclusion of cities in midlevel theories, which articulate broader economic and geographical thinking on money and space with empirical work on urban restructuring, allows this research agenda to both gain conceptual strength and potential political impact.

Renewing the purpose of geography education: Eco‐anxiety, powerful knowledge, and pathways for transformation

AbstractConcerns about the decline in uptake of secondary geography education continue despite arguments supporting the value of geography education, the power of geographical thinking, and geography’s critical role in preparing students to deal with complex challenges. Already constrained by neoliberal politics of disadvantage, young people must plan and prepare for chaotic futures. Consequently, young people are becoming distressed and worried about their futures and feeling powerless as society fails to adequately address these issues. In this article, we ask what schools and universities can do as place‐based public institutions to serve young people to effectively respond to eco‐anxiety and build capacities to surf the unrelenting waves of change. We draw on journeys that brought three young doctoral candidates to study geography. From their stories, we sketch what a geographical education could offer in terms of relevance, practicality, and engagement with transformative system change. We think that under current world conditions, this is a moment to revive geography education and give it renewed purpose to encourage young people to develop skills and competences to tackle wicked problems.

Three golden principles in geography teaching: valuing theory, matching cases and reflecting on self

ABSTRACT This article presents a new model of curriculum making on geography teaching at the higher education level. It shows how what we term the ‘three golden principles’ – valuing theory, matching cases and reflecting on self – can be used to inspire and contribute to geographic thought and theory teaching. The article discusses the role of geographic theories in teaching and learning in higher education with reference to Tim Cresswell’s book Geographic Thought. It then describes a teaching experiment carried out with postgraduate students in a Chinese university that sought to establish the effectiveness of the three golden principles in practice. The article demonstrates how, under the guidance of the principles, students can develop their critical and creative thinking skills. It shows that these principles can enhance the integration of students’ scientific knowledge with everyday knowledge of geography and discusses the implications of this approach for geography teaching in China and elsewhere.