Geographic Routing Research Articles

UVCS: Unit Virtual Coordinate System for UAV Intra-Swarm Routing in GPS-Denied Environment

Wireless ad hoc networks are the solution for providing network connectivity in challenging environments with a lack or absence of infrastructure. Data transmission in such networks typically adopts geographic routing protocols, which use geographic coordinates as addresses of network devices. However, geographic coordinates are not always obtainable, as traditional localization systems (GNSS, Wi-Fi, terrestrial infrastructure) might not be available due to signal loss. In this paper, we propose a method that assigns virtual coordinates to network nodes, which can be used as input for geographic routing protocols. The numerical results demonstrate the high topological similarity between the physical and the virtual network. Our method exhibits convergence advantages over conventional approaches and outperforms them in terms of the total number of discovered paths.

Energy – Efficient routing and scheduling using clustering in geographic routing protocol

In the resource-constrained wireless sensor network (WSN) geographic routing has been considered as an attractive method where it exploits the location data instead of global topology to transmit the data. The geographic routing protocol faces the routing issues when it is used by a heterogeneous device and utilizes high energy during the propagation of data. The lifespan of the sensor network depends on the efficiency of energy and capacity of the battery. Hence, successful data transmission, enrichment of battery capacity and energy utilization is necessary for WSN. To attain this requirements an effective change is made in the data transmission environment and network topology. In this paper proposed a dynamic cluster based duty cycle scheduling is initiated for the data transmission. The cluster-based scheduling and routing in geographic routing protocol (CSRGR) utilize the clustering mechanism which in turn reduces the consumption of energy and maximizes the throughput. The objective function of the proposed approach provides a scheduling and routing strategy. The demonstration of simulation results shows the effective cluster size balancing with data transmission range dynamically. The proposed algorithm is compared with the existing approach and from the results, the energy consumption is minimum for diverse scenarios.

Multi-index joint node selection protocol in UAV ad hoc network

In the application scenario of a UAV ad hoc network, aiming at the problems of low packet forwarding success rate and premature death of some nodes in greedy perimeter stateless routing (GPSR) protocol, a multi-index joint node selection-GPSR protocol (MT-GPSR) is proposed. Based on greedy forwarding, MT-GPSR protocol comprehensively considers the link holding time of adjacent nodes, the residual energy of adjacent nodes, and the node degree to jointly select the next hop node, and proposes an AHP maximum entropy criterion weighting algorithm, which reasonably weights the node index value, adds the weighted index values to obtain the selection priority value, and selects the neighbor node whose priority value is the best under the weighting condition as the next hop node for data forwarding, so as to improve the efficiency of data forwarding. At the same time, the network life is prolonged. The simulation results show that compared with the GPSR algorithm and GPSR-NMP algorithm, this algorithm ensures stable communication between UAVs, improves the network communication quality, and improves the network lifetime.

Geographic Drone-based Route Optimization Approach for Emergency Area Ad-Hoc Network

Wireless sensor Mobile ad hoc networks have excellent potential in moving and monitoring disaster area networks on real-time basis. The recent challenges faced in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) include scalability, localization, heterogeneous network, self-organization, and self-sufficient operation. In this background, the current study focuses on specially-designed communication link establishment for high connection stability of wireless mobile sensor networks, especially in disaster area network. Existing protocols focus on location-dependent communications and use networks based on typically-used Internet Protocol (IP) architecture. However, IP-based communications have a few limitations such as inefficient bandwidth utilization, high processing, less transfer speeds, and excessive memory intake. To overcome these challenges, the number of neighbors (Node Density) is minimized and high Mobility Nodes (Node Speed) are avoided. The proposed Geographic Drone Based Route Optimization (GDRO) method reduces the entire overhead to a considerable level in an efficient manner and significantly improves the overall performance by identifying the disaster region. This drone communicates with anchor node periodically and shares the information to it so as to introduce a drone-based disaster network in an area. Geographic routing is a promising approach to enhance the routing efficiency in MANET. This algorithm helps in reaching the anchor (target) node with the help of Geographical Graph-Based Mapping (GGM). Global Positioning System (GPS) is enabled on mobile network of the anchor node which regularly broadcasts its location information that helps in finding the location. In first step, the node searches for local and remote anticipated Expected Transmission Count (ETX), thereby calculating the estimated distance. Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) results are stored in the local memory of the node. Then, the node calculates the least remote anticipated ETX, Link Loss Rate, and information to the new location. Freeway Heuristic algorithm improves the data speed, efficiency and determines the path and optimization problem. In comparison with other models, the proposed method yielded an efficient communication, increased the throughput, and reduced the end-to-end delay, energy consumption and packet loss performance in disaster area networks.

A Geographic Routing Protocol Based on Node Scoring and Intersection Evaluation

VANET has a good application prospect in the current vehicle communication. As one of MANET, it has the characteristics of dynamic network topology and indirect connection, which makes the wireless connection between nodes unstable. Aiming at this problem, we propose a routing protocol combining link stability, node density and distance scale. When data packets are transmitted to the intersection, the optimal adjacent intersection is selected to determine the forwarding path, which improves the geographical forwarding of data packets located at the intersection. Through simulation, we find that the proposed geographic routing protocol based on node scoring and intersection evaluation (GRNSIE) has good routing performance in PDR and latency when compared with GPSR, GyTAR and GROOV.

Creation of supply chains for the delivery of agricultural products and food along the Eurasian transport corridors

To assess the advantages of the supply of agricultural products and food in specialized refrigerated containers, to show the main channels for the supply of food cargo by container trains on Eurasian transport routes. Research methods: when preparing a scientific article, methods of scientific research in logistics were used: structural analysis, technical parameterization, process analysis of supply chains. Results: the advantages for cargo owners of the service of food shipments by specialized refrigerated container trains are substantiated, visual diagrams of geographical routes of food shipments in the direction of Russia - China are presented, descriptions of survey logistics services, Glonass navigation services and tracking of the location and temperature regime of the transported container are given. Recommendations: the results of the published study are recommended to be used by specialists of logistics services of cargo owners in the process of designing the delivery and shipment of food cargo according to seamless multimodal delivery schemes.

Agent-Based Reactive Geographic Routing Protocol for Internet of Vehicles

Agent-Based Reactive Geographic Routing Protocol for Internet of Vehicles

基于物联网的农产品冷链物流安全监控系统设计

In order to improve the safety of cold chain logistics transportation and the accuracy of monitoring results, a design method of agricultural products cold chain logistics safety monitoring system based on the Internet of Things is proposed. The monitoring system includes wireless sensor, embedded and GPS technologies. In order to effectively realize the management of logistics monitoring data, this paper proposes improved Leda criteria to remove outliers in information fusion, and an information transmission method based on multicast greedy forwarding (MGF) algorithm on the basis of traditional management means, thus realizing logistics vehicle monitoring and logistics information tracing. The result shows that the object loss rate of the proposed logistics supervision method is only 1.7%, which is significantly lower than other supervision methods. And the monitoring accuracy of the monitoring method proposed in the study is also significantly higher than other methods, which can achieve effective supervision in the cold chain transport process of agricultural products. The above results show that it is feasible to adopt improved methods to realize the safety monitoring of logistics cold chain transportation, which is of great significance to the external sales of agricultural products and the development of logistics technology.

Efficient Route Planning Using Temporal Reliance of Link Quality for Highway IoV Traffic Environment

Intermittently connected vehicular networks, terrain of the highway, and high mobility of the vehicles are the main critical constraints of highway IoV (Internet of Vehicles) traffic environment. These cause GPS outage problem and the existence of short-lived wireless mobile links that reduce the performance of designed routing approaches. Nevertheless, geographic routing has attracted a lot of attention from researchers as a potential means of accurate and efficient information delivery. Various distance-based routing protocols have been proposed in the literature, with an emphasis on restricting the forwarding area to the next forwarding vehicle. Many of these protocols have issues with significant one-hop link disconnection, long end-to-end delays, and low throughput even at normal vehicle speeds in high-vehicular-density environments due to frequently interrupted wireless links. In this paper, an efficient geocast routing (EGR) approach for highway IoV–traffic environment considering the shadowing fading condition is proposed. In EGR, a geometrical localization for GPS outage problem and a temporal link quality estimation model considering underlying vehicular movement have been proposed. Geocast routing to select a next forwarding vehicle from forward region by utilizing temporal link quality is proposed for four different scenarios. To evaluate the effectiveness and scalability of EGR, a comparative performance evaluation based on simulations has been performed. It is clear from the analysis of the results that EGR performs better than state-of-the-art approaches in highway traffic environment in terms of handling the problem of wireless communication link breakage and throughput, as well as ensuring the faster delivery of the messages.

Editorial to the Inaugural Issue

Dear editors, reviewers, authors, readers, and other members of the whole scientific and professional community, Welcome to this inaugural issue of Information Dynamics and Applications (IDA)! On behalf of the editorial office, I am writing with great pleasure and sincere privilege to present the first issue of the journal IDA. In the last few years, there is a growing necessity for information dynamics, especially with the extensive application of artificial intelligence in virtually all fields of science, economy, and life. It can be observed that many conflicting indicators are involved in the complex nature and society systems. The conflicting aims need to be balanced by developing and applying intelligent management decision models, which represents a significant challenge in uncertain environments, given the limited resources, time, and funds available. In addition, an important task in modern society is the possibility to make adequate decisions in real time through quantitative and qualitative analysis. Such analysis enables decision-makers to make real-time decisions by looking at the real needs of the companies and the market at any moment. This first issue aims to give answers to many important questions related to the scope of the journal. This issue consists of five very interesting high-quality papers, which apply decision models in various fields: in the Integration of Ontology Transformation into Hidden Markov Model, in the Geographic Routing Protocols in Wireless Sensor Network, in the Heterogeneous Sources at Different Levels of Granularity. In addition, digital marketing, quality models, MCDM model, and intelligent models related to information dynamics are discussed in this issue, shedding new lights on various management problems. Information Dynamics and Applications (IDA) (ISSN 2958-1486) is a fully refereed international open access journal, which publishes original research results in all subjects related to the dynamics and applications of information technology. The mission of the journal is to promote interdisciplinary research centered around the key issues of information processing, storage, and transmission. We welcome original submissions in various forms, including reviews, regular research papers, and short communications as well as Special Issues on particular topics. Our special interest lies in new analytical and application techniques of information technology in different fields of science and engineering. We follow principle of international diversity regarding the editorial board, reviewers and authors. Therefore, we invite and welcome submissions from around the world. All information related to IDA journal are available in our website: https://www.acadlore.com/journals/ida.

ARMS‐EGR—Adaptive ranking and mobile sink‐enabled energy‐efficient geographic routing protocol in flying ad hoc networks

SummaryUnmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have become widespread because of their involvement in a variety of applications. The task of designing the energy‐efficient routing between UAVs has been considered a matter of great interest due to the inherent challenges of controlling the dynamics exhibited by UAVs. Energy limitations are considered the main limitations of UAVs. This research paper proposes a novel routing protocol, adaptive ranking and mobile sink (MS)‐enabled energy‐efficient geographic routing (ARMS‐EGR) for flying ad hoc networks. In ARMS‐EGR, the whole network is partitioned into cells. The cell contains cell members (CM) and cell heads (CHs). The CH works as a cluster head. Additionally, two MSs have been used to collect data captured by CM. Multihop communication on the network leads to an increase in traffic and consumes the energy of the UAVs located near the base station (BS). MSs are used for power distribution and load balancing across the network. Adaptive ranking of forwarder UAVs and CHs is performed during intracell and intercell multihop communication, respectively, using adaptive ranking. A cell with one‐hop communication can directly send packets to the MS, but the ARMS‐EGR routing protocol has been proposed for multihop communication. The proposed approach is simulated in NS‐2.35 software. The results show that end‐to‐end latency and power consumption during packet transmission are greatly minimized. ARMS‐EGR also demonstrates improvements in message success rates, number of alive nodes, and packet delivery ratio, making ARMS‐EGR particularly suitable for flying ad hoc networks (FANETs).

TGRV: A trust-based geographic routing protocol for VANETs

Vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs) consist of highly mobile and self-organized nodes that wirelessly communicate with one another and transmit a variety of information, some of which may be critical information. Due to the rapidly changing topology of VANETs and the high-speed mobility of the participating vehicles, the routing of packets in these networks is a challenging task. Moreover, the presence of malicious vehicles in VANETs makes the correct routing of packets more challenging. In this paper, we propose a trust-based geographic routing protocol for VANETs (TGRV) that limits the participation of malicious vehicles in routing. In TGRV, to select the next-hop, a sender not only considers the distance, speed, and direction of its neighbors but also evaluates their direct trust and recommendation trust. For this purpose, TGRV uses a monitoring system that allows each vehicle to monitor the correct packet forwarding rate of its next-hop. In this way, the vehicle updates its direct trust to the next-hop and retransmits the packets if the packets are lost. The vehicle also sends its observations of the next-hop to its neighbors with a push-based notification, and based on that, the neighbors can update their recommendation trust about the next-hop. The monitoring system applies distance prediction in a modified promiscuous mode to better estimate the correct packet forwarding rate of the next-hop. To enhance the accuracy of trust management, the trust values of interactions are reduced over time by using a decay factor. TGRV uses the number and trust of two-hop neighbors, which helps in selecting the next-hop that is in a more trusted zone. Our extensive simulations on OMNeT++ show that when the percentage of malicious vehicles in an urban scenario increases from 0 to 25%, the packet delivery ratio of TGRV decreases from 95.1 to 88.7%, which performs very well compared to the GPSR and PGRP protocols. Also, the end-to-end delay of TGRV increases from 3.79 to 7.07 s and the average hop count of TGRV increases from 6.7 to 9.9, which are significant increases compared to the other two protocols. These increases are acceptable because, in the other two protocols, there is no monitoring and retransmission, and the probability of packet delivery failure on longer routes is higher. The cost and security analysis also show that the memory, communication, and computational overheads of TGRV are acceptable, and TGRV is resistant and resilient to some important trust-based attacks.

Improved trustworthy, speed, and energy-efficient GPSR routing algorithm in large-scale WSN

Geographic routing networks broadcast their readiness to modify the routing protocol using the traditional methodology in wireless sensor network (WSN). These are effectively dealt with to preserve electricity. Researchers propose the Modified - Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) system for efficient sensor network connection to determine the optimal path based on energy usage and avoids malicious activity. Depending on the limited memory nodes and battery power, rapid dynamic topology, and unpredictable equipment, the deployment of GPSR in sensor networks faces several challenges. The cost of communication across the network is close to ideal because of our Modified-GPSR method. The simulation results show that minimizing power and latency considerably increases the durability of the sensor node system. The study also focuses on estimating implementation costs and learning about design, implementation, and statistical practice.

UW-GRE: Underwater Greedy Geographic Routing by Network Embedding

This paper presents the novel routing protocol called Underwater Greedy Geographic Routing by Network Embedding (UW-GRE) for underwater wireless networks. Geographic routing is a promising network routing protocol strategy for wireless networks because it is stateless. However, this routing strategy faces various problems in the underwater environment. This is caused by some challenging characteristics of this environment, such as its 3D nature and the no propagation of GPS signal due to high radio frequency signal attenuation. Accurate localization, void regions, and guaranteed delivery are then some of the problems faced by this routing strategy in this environment. In this paper, we solve those problems efficiently by using geographic routing over virtual coordinates obtained through a network embedding in an n-dimensional (n≥ 2) Euclidean virtual space. By properly embedding the network in this virtual Euclidean space, no geographic information is needed. We implemented the protocol on ns-3. Our results show that, when compared to a conventional geographic routing protocol with perfect localization information, our protocol improves the number of transmissions and energy consumption by up to or higher than 30%, end-to-end delay by up to 28%, while achieving similar network throughput.

Geographic Routing Protocol Based on Learning Automata for Emergency Communication Networks

Geographic Routing Protocol Based on Learning Automata for Emergency Communication Networks

ARPVP: Attack Resilient Position-Based VANET Protocol Using Ant Colony Optimization

The position-based routing of Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET) vulnerable to various security attacks because of dependency on computing, control, and communication technologies. The Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled VANET application leads to the challenges such as integrity, access control, availability, privacy protection, non-repudiation, and confidentiality. Several security solutions have been introduced for two decades in two categories as cryptography-based and trust-based. Due to the high computation complexity, cryptography-based solutions are outperformed by recent intelligent trust-based mechanisms. The trust-based techniques are lightweight and effective against the well-known security threats in VANET. The objective of this paper has to design a novel position-based routing in which the conduct of vehicles assessed to accomplish reliable VANET communications. Attack Resilient Position-based VANET Protocol (ARPVP) proposed to detect and prevent malicious vehicles in the network using the trust evaluation technique and artificial intelligence (AI). In the first phase of ARPVP, the periodic self-trust assessment algorithm has designed using various trust parameters to detect unreliable vehicles in the network. In the second phase of ARPVP, the position-based route formation algorithm has designed using the AI technique Ant Colony Optimization (ACO). ACO solves the problem of reliable route formation by neglecting the attacker's using a trust-based fitness function. The trust parameters of each vehicle as mobility, buffer occupancy, and link quality parameters had measured in both phases of ARPVP. Simulation outcomes of the proposed model outperformed state-of-art protocols in terms of average throughput, communication delay, overhead, and Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR).

Planned spatial arrangement of high-speed railway lines in Poland

Abstract: The article analyzes the main directions of long-distance rail transport in Poland, confronting them with the main directions of population movements in individual road transport, which allowed for the formulation of a general conclusion as to the polycentric rather than monocentric system of the Polish land transport network, in which the main passenger flows are closed in two circles. The smaller circle is formed by Warsaw, Łódź, Poznań and Bydgoszcz with Toruń, while the larger one is defined by the main cities of northern, eastern, southern and western Poland. On the basis of this analysis, a general recommendation was formulated that when designing the spatial and geographical layout of new high-speed railway lines, the layout of passenger flows inside the country should also be taken into account. The new concepts of the geographic route of high-speed railway lines related to the railway component of the project to build the Central Communication Port (CPK) in Poland do not fully take into account this postulate because they have been completely subordinated to the function of transporting and transporting passengers to the planned central airport. In the further part of the article, after a critical analysis of the assumed spatial and geographical routes of new high-speed lines Warsaw - Łódź - Poznań / Wrocław, the CPK - Płock - Grudziądz - Gdańsk line and the designed sections of high-speed lines for the CPK - Rzeszów transport route, specific corrections of their spatial routes are proposed. Keywords: Railway development in Poland; Railway component of the CPK project; High Speed Railways

Performance evaluation of MANET routing protocols under DDOS attacks

Mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) consist of a set of communicating wireless mobile nodes or devices that could be deployed without the need for pre-established infrastructure for communication. Due to the insecure wireless communication medium and dynamic behavior of the nodes in MANETs, routing protocols are vulnerable to various security attacks, such as distributed denial of service (DDOS) attacks. DDOS attacks are used to temporarily disable network services by overloading the target system with huge traffic, such that it cannot respond to legitimate traffic.
 In this paper, we evaluate the performance of the Ad hoc on demand vector (AODV), Temporally ordered routing algorithm (TORA), Geographic routing protocol (GRP), and optimized link state routing (OLSR) routing protocols in MANETs under the DDOS attacks. These routing protocols are simulated using OPNET simulator to compare their performance using specific performance metrics on the network. The experimental results show that TORA protocol performs better than the AODV, OLSR, and GRP protocols under the DDOS attack.

PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS ON GPSR PROTOCOL IN VANETS ENVIRONMENT OF OVERLAY NETWORK AND FORWARDING NODE SELECTION METHODS

VANETs are technology in Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) in driving safety and convenient network services for vehicle users. However, the high mobility of VANETs makes the topology change frequently, resulting in the unavailability of routes and causing communication failures between nodes. Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing (GPSR) is a routing protocol that solves communication problems in the VANETs environment. GPSR is a geographic routing protocol that uses information on the location of neighbouring nodes and the transmission range to the nearest destination node. But, GPSR does not always find the optimal route because not all nearby nodes can forward packets to their destination during heavy traffic and many intersections. In this research, the overlay network and forwarding node selection methods will be used to solve problems in the GPSR routing protocol related to communication instability because of changing node positions. Based on the results of testing and analysis that has been carried out on a grid scenario with 50 nodes, the Packet Delivery Ratio results are 32.60. In contrast, the results for the real scenario with the same nodes produce a value of 64. The analysis of End to End Delay in the 50-node grid scenario produces 5.64, while the real scenario results with 50 nodes yield the value of 24.11. The analysis Routing Overhead in the grid scenario with 50 nodes produces a value of 39,978, while the results of the real scenario with 50 nodes get a value of 10,239. With the result of these two analysis methods, it is expected to increase the average value of package delivery.

Position-Monitoring-Based Hybrid Routing Protocol for 3D UAV-Based Networks

Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have emerged as prime technologies due to their compatible size and flexible architecture. UAV technology offers services in vast application such as inter-UAV communication, wireless sensors, and the future Internet of Things (IoT) due to its compatible architecture. A UAV’s speed varies while roaming, which may increase the risk of a connection failure. Various routing schemes have provided solutions to address this essential issue for three-dimensional (3D) UAV-based networks. The main category of UAV routing schemes is position-based routing schemes, which choose the best route based on the UAV’s location. However, position-based routing has the drawback that it depends on exact positioning and tracking. An efficient routing scheme can resolve the significant issue associated with UAV mobility in a 3D environment. This paper aims to address the issues of static preloaded location values by presenting a hybrid routing scheme named the Position-Monitor-based Hybrid Routing Protocol (PMHRP), which takes advantage of both geographic and topology-based routing protocols. The PMHRP establishes the shortest possible route based on a UAV’s Global Positioning System (GPS). Moreover, the proposed protocol utilizes the links for data forwarding. Furthermore, a disaster-based UAV scenario is adopted to provide connections to IoT devices. A detailed comparison analysis shows the proposed scheme’s extreme performance and results in up to 65% to 73% better packet delivery ratio (PDR) than batch mark schemes under standard 3D UAV scenarios. Compared to earlier work, the proposed scheme reduces the average delay by up to 68% to 75%. Further proposed routing schemes offer 70% to 72% more throughput than the existing routing schemes, and NRL (%) is 42% to 49% lower than the existing routing schemes. This happens because of the global routing information available at each UAV which is provided by the position head coordinator (PHC) UAV in the proposed work.