Geoarchaeological Studies Research Articles

Application of Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands

The aim of the present paper is to discuss the application of phytolith (microbiomorphic) and non-pollen palynomorph (NPP) analyses to the geoarchaeological study of a Medieval – Early Modern Time period farmyard in Graft, a settlement located in the polder region of North Holland, the Netherlands. The authors have assessed the potential of the methods chosen for studying this type of archaeological site during rescue excavations, when archaeologists often have a limited number of samples or methods for geoarchaeological analysis. The studies conducted have proved the informative value and effectiveness of microbiomorphic and NPP analyses in rescue excavations, especially when applied in combination, thus providing controlling and complementary information for each analysis. The data obtained have provided an important insight into the archaeological interpretation of the cultural layer within the farmyard. In addition, more information was gained on the local palaeoenvironmental dynamics and the phases of economic activity at the farmyard during the 13th–17th centuries CE.

Geoarchaeology at the marine waterfront of a coastal urban center: Human activities and sea-land interface processes on the Late Bronze and early Iron Age coast of Tel Dor, Israel

Geoarchaeological research at coastal urban sites in the Levant focused until recently on two research directions: the identification of ancient harbors and the study of occupation deposits in settlement portions that are located well above sea level (i.e., 'dry' excavations). Here we present a geoarchaeological study of the southern maritime waterfront of Tel Dor following a coastal excavation at an elevation that is close to current sea level. The research addresses stratigraphic relationships between underwater, coastal and fully terrestrial architectural features (wall remains) and these provide the context for deposits found within the site's perimeter. These coastal deposits were then studied using sediment micromorphology as well as stable carbon and oxygen isotope analysis. Three depositional units have been identified. The lower was found to be coastal deposits earlier than the Iron Age IB (Ir1b, 11-10th c. BCE). The middle unit is an ash deposit containing pottery and bone refuse dating to the Ir1b, probably a town dump, that became indurated due to sea level rise and resembles beachrock. The upper unit is composed of tell occupation deposits, including phytolith-rich layers and evidence for wood ash and compacted livestock dung as in stabling deposits. The latter, dated to the Ir1b – Ir2a (i.e. up-to and including the 9th c. BCE), reflects dumped refuse and livestock keeping in a terrestrial (i.e. non-marine) environment. Overall, this study provides initial insights into site formation processes and human activities at Dor's maritime interface during the Iron Age.

Objects of Antique and Medieval Cultural Heritage as a resource of the geoecosystems of the Northern Black Sea Coast and of the Black Sea Shelf in the area of the Bug Estuary

This article is a continuation of the author’s series of publications devoted to the study of the resource potential of archaeological artifacts — sites of ancient and medieval heritage as anthropogenic components of modern geoecosystems of the Northern Black Sea coast (GESNBSC) and the nearby Black Sea shelf including the estuaries. These sites are currently partially or fully located in the transitional part of the Black Sea Geoecosystem (BSG) space and associated geoecological subsystems of estuaries, where modern natural aerial, aquatic and geological environmental subsystems interface with each other. The article presents the results of research, characterization and typification of archaeological sites of the cultural heritage of ancient and medieval times, which are located in the space of geoecosystems that were formed in this region. Among them are the underwater archaeological sites dis- covered in the space of ancient coastal and littoral paleogeoecosystems of the Bug Estuary, their connection with the most significant archaeological sites that were once formed as part of geoecosystems of the land. A preliminary reconstruction of the borders of the Bug Estuary in ancient and medieval times is made; there is demonstrated the resource archaeological potential of GESNBSC spaces and the adjacent zone of the Black Sea shelf with estuaries, including the ancient and medieval archaeo- logical sites of cultural heritage, which were created and for some time belonged to the spaces of cer- tain paleo-GESNBSC, but are now located in the space of modern geoecosystem of the Bug Estuary. The article gives a brief description of the already known archaeological, partially submerged sites of ancient and medieval cultural heritage, some other interesting underwater archaeological artifacts, and shows the feasibility of expanding their study with reference to bathymetric and geomorphological features of the boundaries between modern natural BSG environmental subsystems. Such knowledge is important both for solving the issues related to a more profound understanding of the causes and consequences of changes in the paleogeoecological and modern geoecological conditions of the shelf of Azov-Black Sea basin and GESNBSC, predicting their dynamics and directions of development, and for historical and archaeological reconstructions, in particular, to identify new cultural heritage sites. The results of geoarchaeological (that is, a complex of geoecological and archaeological) studies published in the article are important not only for understanding the formation and functioning of transitional geoecosystems with their resources, which include archaeological artifacts as anthropogenic components, but also for the development of public culture, historical memory population and expansion of its historical consciousness. In addition, such knowledge is necessary to consciously and competently address a number of economic problems in the development of communities in the Northern Black Sea region. In particular, to attract investment in the development of coastal and underwater tourism, to predict the impact of many geo-environmental processes inherent in the research region under specific conditions of the search, identification, use and preservation of the historical and archaeological potential of ancient and medieval cultural heritage located in the space of modern GESNBSC and BSG as their components. These anthropogenic components are objective evidence of the impact of natural geo-environ- mental conditions and their dynamics on the peculiarities of life and migration of the region’s inhabitants from ancient times up to the present.

Fuel sources, natural vegetation and subsistence at a high-altitude aboriginal settlement in Tenerife, Canary Islands: Microcontextual geoarchaeological data from Roques de García Rockshelter

High-altitude island environments, with their characteristic strong seasonal contrast and limited resources, are challenging contexts for human subsistence. However, although archaeological contexts in this kind of setting hold great potential to explore the diversity of human biological and cultural adaptations, such sites are rare. In this paper, we present the results of a microcontextual geoarchaeological study carried out at Roques de García Rockshelter, the highest altitude cave archaeological site in the Canary Islands (Spain). The site was inhabited by the aboriginal population of the island and has yielded a rich archaeological context derived from combustion activity. We carried out soil micromorphology to characterize site function and lipid biomarker analysis to investigate the natural and anthropogenic organic record. Our data indicate that the aboriginal groups that occupied the site kept goats with them (in the rockshelter) and probably used Juniperus turbinata (sabina) wood, a current distant fuel source. These results suggest that the aboriginal societies of Tenerife occupied the highlands regularly, taking their herds and firewood with them. Further research is necessary to explore the use and exploitation of fuel sources, the seasonality of these occupations and their differences with lowland sites.

Extended longevity of DNA preservation in Levantine Paleolithic sediments, Sefunim Cave, Israel

Paleogenomic research can elucidate the evolutionary history of human and faunal populations. Although the Levant is a key land-bridge between Africa and Eurasia, thus far, relatively little ancient DNA data has been generated from this region, since DNA degrades faster in warm climates. As sediments can be a source of ancient DNA, we analyzed 33 sediment samples from different sedimentological contexts in the Paleolithic layers of Sefunim Cave (Israel). Four contained traces of ancient Cervidae and Hyaenidae mitochondrial DNA. Dating by optical luminescence and radiocarbon indicates that the DNA comes from layers between 30,000 and 70,000 years old, surpassing theoretical expectations regarding the longevity of DNA deposited in such a warm environment. Both identified taxa are present in the zooarchaeological record of the site but have since gone extinct from the region, and a geoarchaeological study suggests little movement of the sediments after their deposition, lending further support to our findings. We provide details on the local conditions in the cave, which we hypothesize were particularly conducive to the long-term preservation of DNA—information that will be pertinent for future endeavors aimed at recovering ancient DNA from the Levant and other similarly challenging contexts.

Life near the water: Geoarchaeological investigation of site formation processes and occupation patterns at the near‐bank mound of Liangzhu City, China

AbstractThe Liangzhu City site, located in the center of the Liangzhu Culture (3300–2300 cal. BC), is characterized by gigantic earthen mounds containing about 10 million m3 of earth, as well as crisscrossed waterways that flow through the mounds. This study presents a geoarchaeological study of a mound structure adjacent to the South Zhongjiagang channel of Liangzhu City. By applying soil micromorphological and associated bulk sedimentological analyses, this study reconstructed the site formation processes and multiple occupations of the mound structure together with related hydrological changes. The results suggest that this site is in a near‐bank activity area formed due to the build‐up of sequential settlement buildings and activity deposits. At least six intact activity surfaces have been recognized based on the presence of intact matting materials and the trampling of fine anthropogenic debris. This study thus reports the first detailed micromorphological study of Neolithic floor sequences in East China. In addition, lipid and isotope analyses of the plant material shed light on how Liangzhu people exploited grass materials, especially bamboo, for both long‐term and short‐term occupation near waterways. This study has demonstrated the potential of micromorphological studies for reconstructing site formation processes and identifying different types of human activities in a landscape that was highly modified by Neolithic people. The findings have far‐reaching implications for archaeological research around the Tai Lake region and investigations of other large earthen mound archaeological sites around the world.

Fields and People at Río Bec (Mexico): A Study in Progress (2019-2022) of Settlement Agriculture in the Classic Maya Lowlands

In the ongoing debate about the role of agriculture in the development and decline of Classic (250–950 CE) Maya lowland societies, the archaeological site of Río Bec has a special place. It is one of the few settlements in which, years before the use of LiDAR to survey the Yucatán peninsula, a multi-scalar geoarchaeological study (Río Bec Project 1, 2002–2010) allowed us to define a field system—that is, landed domains of distinct fields organized around their local networks of household units. The dimensions of the fields, their correlation to the size of their corresponding households, and their long period of use (200 years, 700–900 CE), during Río Bec's apogee, raise questions about the fundamental issues of land use practices (intensification, diversification, and specialization) and their sustainability over what was a relatively long period. Those issues are at the heart of a new research program at Río Bec, which we began in 2019, combining an archaeobotanical approach with land use and settlement pattern modeling, ultimately aimed at correlating local agricultural production with demography (Río Bec Project 2, 2019–2022). Based on the knowledge of field and settlement systems in their environment that we accumulated during our past research, the paper starts with a description of the field system in one sector of the Río Bec site, then focuses on the diversity of its plots on the household scale and proceeds to discuss the preliminary correlation that can be established between agricultural intensification and demography at Río Bec at the neighborhood scale and the settlement scale.

More than just food from the sea: Exploitation of marine resources in Hellenistic Berenike on the Red Sea (Egypt)

Hellenistic Berenike, a major harbour founded on the Red Sea coast of Egypt in the mid-3rd century BCE, was from the beginning dependent in part on the exploitation of its marine ecosystem to ensure a proper supply of food for the soldiers manning the fort as well as the population servicing the commercial harbour. The archaeomalacological assemblage from recent excavations (2009–2020) has provided material for redefining the relationship between the human population and the marine ecosystems. Remains associated with anthropic activity were separated from the malacological “background noise” by applying a taphonomic analysis and comparing results with a sedimentological study of core drillings from the site and the findings of a local geoarchaeological study carried out for the purposes of the Berenike Hellenistic subproject. Palaeoecological analyses identified the ecosystems exploited in fishing and mollusc gathering, while taphonomic examination revealed different food processing and cooking strategies used in fish and mollusc preparation, suggesting some interesting Hellenistic culinary practices. The study also demonstrated the other uses of marine resources: as decorated trays, pigment containers, censers or drinking cups, as personal ornaments and decoration of objects or furnishing, as raw resources for local handicrafts (tortoiseshell). Not the least, the earliest archaeological attestation of the use of gastropod operculum as an incense ingredient is of particular interest.

Tectonic Activity and Site-Formation Processes at Tel Reḥov

The site of Tel Reḥov is located on one of the most active tectonic fault zones in the Near East—the Western Marginal Fault of the Dead Sea Rift—and was prone to tectonic movements, which had a significant effect on site-formation processes. Geoseismic and geoarchaeological studies conducted as part of the Tel Reḥov excavation project suggest that the site was located on an uplifted tectonic block (horst) bounded by faults on the north, west, and south. Recurrent tectonic activity during the Late Holocene resulted in an eastward-tilting of layers and the entire mound, contributed to the shaping of mound boundaries, and constrained the extent of postdepositional erosion.

Understanding the formation of buried urban Anthrosols and Technosols: An integrated soil micromorphological and phytolith study of the Dark Earth on the Mundaneum site (Mons, Belgium)

Among the buried urban Anthrosols and Technosols, urban Dark Earth composes a major challenge to urban archaeologists and soil scientists. These homogeneous units are often the result of a complex formation history, involving human actions and natural processes. In order to understand the significance of the late medieval to pre-industrial urban Dark Earth observed on the site of Mundaneum in the historical centre of Mons (Belgium) an integrated soil micromorphological and phytolith study has been performed.The aim of this study is to understand how the urban Dark Earth formed and to identify the major natural and human processes that are involved in its formation. The results show that major natural processes are bioturbation, sedimentation, humification, alkalinisation and clay translocation. These processes are mainly human induced. Main human activities include cereal cultivation, horticulture, dumping of waste and trampling. Phytoliths proved to be an important witness of the presence of plant material, in a context where organic remains tend to decompose rapidly. The integrated approach allowed to come to a better understanding of the taphonomical history of the phytoliths, hence permitting to distinguish plant remains related to manure, cereal processing and in situ cultivated plants. The study further permitted the authors to gain insight in part of the biography of the site and its surroundings, hence showing changes in spatial organisation and the progressive urbanisation of the area. As such, this analysis provides an important stepstone to the further geoarchaeological study of town development in Medieval and Modern periods.

The lower coasts of the Gulf of Gabès and their wetlands (South-East Tunisia): a geoarchaeological study of the landscape evolution and human occupation in Late Holocene

The lower coasts of the Gulf of Gabès and their wetlands (South-East Tunisia): a geoarchaeological study of the landscape evolution and human occupation in Late Holocene

Geoarchaeology and Heritage Management: Identifying and Quantifying Multi-Scalar Erosional Processes at Kisese II Rockshelter, Tanzania

Natural and anthropogenically induced soil erosion can cause serious loss of the archaeological record. Our work shows the value of multi-scalar geoarchaeological study when excavating and re-excavating rockshelters in a highly dynamic sedimentary environment where erosion is prominent. Here we present our work on Kisese II rockshelter, Tanzania, originally excavated in the 1950s and largely unpublished, that preserves an important Pleistocene-Holocene archaeological record integral to understanding the deep history of the Kondoa Rock-Art World Heritage Center. Unlike rockshelters in quiescent tectonic settings, like much of central Europe or South Africa, Kisese II exists in highly dynamic sedimentary environments associated with the active tectonics of the Great Rift Valley system exacerbated by human-induced environmental and climate change. We report on our 2017 and 2019 exploratory research that includes integrated regional-, landscape-, and site-scale geoarchaeological analyses of past and present sedimentary regimes and micromorphological analyses of the archaeological sediments. Historical records and aerial photographs document extensive changes in vegetation cover and erosional regimes since the 1920s, with drastic changes quantified between 1960 and 2019. Field survey points to an increased erosion rate between 2017 and 2019. To serve future archaeologists, heritage specialists, and local populations we combine our data in a geoarchaeological catena that includes soil, vegetation, fauna, and anthropogenic features on the landscape. At the site, micromorphological coupled with chronological analyses demonstrate the preservation of in situ Pleistocene deposits. Comparison of photographs from the 1956 and 2019 excavations show a maximum sediment loss of 68 cm in 63 years or >10% of >6-m-thick sedimentary deposit. In the studied area of the rockshelter we estimate ~1 cm/yr of erosion, suggesting the ongoing removal of much of the higher archaeological sediments which, based on the coarse stratigraphic controls and chronology of the original Inskeep excavations, would suggest the loss of much of the archaeological record of the last ~4000 years. These multi-scalar data are essential for the construction of appropriate mitigation strategies and further study of the remaining stratigraphy.

First geoarchaeological study of a Palaeolithic site on the northern edge of the Iranian Central Desert: Mirak (Semnan, Iran)

Mirak is a Palaeolithic site in Iran comprising several localities (“mounds”) scattered over a dry floodplain environment extending from the southern foothills of the Alborz Mountains to the northern edge of the Central Desert in the Semnan area. The area has been studied since 2015 by an Iranian-French archaeological mission. The archaeological excavations carried out at the Mirak N°8 mound uncovered a 7 m-thick pedo-sedimentary sequence, in which two sequences corresponding to contrasting depositional environments have been observed. Sequence I, comprising alternating horizons of poorly pedogenised clayey silt intercalated with sand layers, is interpreted as an alluvial pedo-sedimentary body deposited in a wetland (floodplain) environment during cold periods, periodically interrupted by shallow sheet flooding deposits. According to the stratigraphy, OSL dates and sedimentological analyses, there is a long sedimentary hiatus before the occurrence of sequence II which corresponds to calcareous aeolian deposits typical of a desert environment. The Mirak N°8 deposits were affected by several stages of incipient aridisol formation with desiccation cracks implying a gradually increasing prevalence of more arid conditions. According to the OSL data, the Mirak N°8 sequence was deposited from the Late Pleistocene to the Late Holocene (52ka to 0.4ka). In this sequence, upper Palaeolithic remains were recovered at distinct levels and it can be presumed that the most recent archaeological layer is made up of palimpsests resulting from repeated human occupations.Results from various mineralogical and sedimentological analyses (XRD, FTIR, SEM, optical microscopy) show very minor differences in mineralogy throughout the record regardless of the type of depositional regime, suggesting a local, and most probably polygenic, sedimentary source. Both alluvial and aeolian accumulations were subjected after deposition to a variety of post-sedimentary pedogenesis processes indicated by pedogenic features characteristic of calcareous, gypsiferous aridisols (Bk, By), including ferruginous root coatings, evaporates and little-developed pedo-structures and horizons. Apparent differences in colour between the two sequences at Mirak N°8 can be attributed to deposition in environments with varying iron contents and oxygenizing conditions, presumably related to higher groundwater levels and Fe-reducing conditions, especially for the units deposited during the late Pleistocene as opposed to the generally warm and dry conditions of the Holocene.

Contrasting the use of space in post-Roman Exeter: geoarchaeology of dark earth and medieval deposits below Exeter Cathedral

European urban dark earth investigations have aided our understanding of Late Roman and early medieval populations and their activities. Deposits from two locations below Exeter Cathedral were compared in a geoarchaeological study and contrasting uses of space were identified. This supports the need for case-by-case investigations of urban deposits.

Visiting Tol-e Tahmachi, a Fifth Millennium BCE Settlement in the Persian Gulf Littoral, Southwest Iran

ABSTRACT Previous archaeological investigations of the northern coast of the Persian Gulf have assumed that it had an unstable landscape due to successive fluctuations and sea-level changes in the mid-Holocene, and no prehistoric settlements were expected there. This impression has also been reinforced by the lack of a systematic strategy for carrying out detailed archaeological surveys on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf, which contrasts to the systematic approaches use in the inter-montane valleys of the Zagros Mountain and the lowland plains of Khuzestan. Geoarchaeological studies have partially reconstructed landscape evolution of the Persian Gulf’s northern coasts, and prehistoric sites are now being found in this region. One prominent recent find is Tahmachi, a fifth millennium BCE settlement in the Liravi (Deylam) plain, which is less than 5 km north of the current shoreline. The two remaining mounds situated alongside the Zendarun stream attest to the presence of a permanent settlement with at least 10 m of cultural deposits in a dynamic and resource-rich landscape. Based on material culture and surface finds, the prehistoric population here had access to diverse resources from both sea and land.

Identification and characterisation of Late Neolithic (3600–2150 Cal. BC) living floors in a temperate environment: Case studies from the southern Paris Basin

Late Neolithic living floors in the southern Paris Basin are still not completely understood. In settlement contexts, the architecture and the organisation of activity areas are quite difficult to characterize and reconstruct. Only a few house plans are known. However, many thinly stratified sites with artefact spreads could represent preserved living floors. The aim of this paper is to investigate the formation processes of this type of site through geoarchaeological study (soil micromorphology) of three sites (Gas, Sours and Pussigny), located in different geographic contexts. In particular, discussion centres on whether these are disturbed layers or well or partially preserved living floors. Using micromorphological analysis we were able to identify several constructed micro-facies (invert, backfill and screed) and functional micro-facies (trampled occupation surfaces inside or outside buildings). The microstratigraphic organisation of pedo-sedimentary sequences could be representative of different types of living floor: constructed floors inside cob buildings, living floors just outside buildings and yard floors. The results of this research confirm that the artefact spreads are the visible aspect of living floors. While for a long time the preservation of living floors was not considered because the conditions were regarded as unfavourable, this study actually demonstrates their possible preservation in different geomorphological and pedological contexts, as well as their informative potential. Moreover, the study shows that the artefact spreads reflect different spaces, depending on environmental conditions and human activities. In a context where data on Late Neolithic architecture in the south-western part of the Paris Basin is limited, these results confirm the presence of built structures on these sites and provide insights into the raw materials used for the construction of houses. Ultimately, the results contribute new knowledge and broaden the fields of research in geoarchaeology and the palaeo-ethnology of living floors.

Human communities living in the central Campania Plain during eruptions of Vesuvius and Campi Flegrei

Archaeological and volcanological studies have revealed that eruptions of Neapolitan volcanoes have conditioned human settlement patterns since prehistoric times. The occurrence of high intensity explosive eruptions, interspersed with long periods of quiescence, has characterized the last 10 ka of activity of these volcanoes. Geoarchaeological studies, carried out in advance of investigations for the construction of the Rome-Naples and the new Naples-Bari railway lines, have made possible a detailed reconstruction of human presence in the central part of the Campania Plain up to the coastal strip, between the late Neolithic and the late Bronze Age. The examined chronological interval includes sequences of pyroclastic deposits erupted by both Campi Flegrei and Somma-Vesuvius, and paleosols with evidence of anthropic frequentation. Altogether, the geoarchaeological data have provided a detailed picture of human settlement and activities through time with a particular focus on a long period of quiescence of the two volcanoes and also during their intense activity.

A geoarchaeological study of the large Early Bronze Age Essentuksky 1 kurgan in Ciscaucasia, Russia

AbstractA geoarchaeological study of the large Essentuksky 1 kurgan in the Stavropol region of Russia analyzed the chemical composition and micromorphological features of the kurgan's earthen materials and established their relationships with buried soils in the context of previously conducted paleoclimatic reconstructions. The kurgan was 5.5–6.0 m high and more than 60 m in diameter, and consisted of four earthen and three stone constructions. It was built in the second quarter of the 4th millennium BC (the Early Maykop culture) using a precise plan and utilizing the building skills and technologies available at that time. The earthen constructions consisted of alternating layers of dark‐colored slightly compacted humified and pale‐colored dense carbonate‐rich materials, which, in the moist state, were rammed down by ancient builders. These materials were sourced mainly from local soils and contained admixtures of river silt and, at the final stage of building, dung. The physicochemical properties of the earthen constructions as well as the paleosols buried under them are indicative of a short‐term aridization of the climate within the period of building. A gleyed earth with strong iron staining at the kurgan's base and mortar that held the stone constructions was produced by thoroughly mixing and compacting in a wet state, indicating that they were special construction materials. This kurgan is an example of the ancient earth architecture in the steppe zone of Russia over 5500 years ago.

Building with turf at Roman Vindolanda: multi-scalar analysis of earthen materials, construction techniques, and landscape context

ABSTRACT Turf was widely used as a building material in the Roman period, especially in military architecture. Despite this, few studies have investigated properties of turf in construction, and fewer still have applied micromorphology to ancient turf walls. This study details the methods and results from a combined macro- and micro-scale analysis, using samples from the well-preserved ramparts at Vindolanda, a fort associated with Hadrian’s Wall. Our work not only proposes a refined methodology for the wider geoarchaeological study of turf walls, but also provides new, deeper insight into the properties of turf as a building material.

The 373 B.C. Helike (Gulf of Corinth, Greece) Earthquake and Tsunami, Revisited

AbstractAncient authors report the destruction and drowning in 373 B.C. in the Gulf of Corinth (Greece) of Helike (Helice and Eliki), an important, nearly coastal town, and of Boura (Bura, Buris, Bouris, and Voura), another town in the hinterland, as a punishment by the ancient God Poseidon because of a serious crime committed in his shrine. This narrative has been regarded as a description of a true event, though with some exaggerations, and the 373 B.C. event is included in earthquake and tsunami catalogs. In the first part of this article, it is shown that (1) local natural hazards exclude the possibility (risk) of total loss of the ancient “polis” (town state) of ancient Helike because of its vulnerability due to its geography. (2) Systematic geoarchaeological studies confirm this prediction because they reveal essentially undisturbed archaeological layers predating and postdating 373 B.C., with no signs of a tsunami. (3) Archaeological excavations have recently brought to light, among other findings, remains of the harbor of Boura and of the shrine of Poseidon at Helike, as well as coins issued by Helike several decades after its alleged loss. This evidence permits a reconsideration of ancient texts related to the loss of Helike in a supervised learning-type approach. It was found that genuine ancient Greek texts do not mention any catastrophe of Helike, but rather that the legend of its total loss appeared several centuries later in Roman times, in local legends, rumors, and forged or manipulated ancient texts (e.g., by pseudo-Aristotle). The ancient legend became important because it explained the collapse of the town state of Helike and it fit ancient religious ideas in a tectonically active region because of the rapid burial (“disappearance”) of ancient Greek remains under sediments in a young delta and because of the prominent location of Helike in the seafaring route between Rome and the eastern Mediterranean.For earthquakes before our era, historical and archaeological data have attracted interpretations… attributing to earthquakes… the demise of flourishing city-states.…The reason for the revival of catastrophe hypotheses is perhaps that they are easy to explain. They are too simple, too obvious and too coincidental and chiefly because they have become fashionable in recent years. (Ambraseys, 2006)