Genetically Modified Crop Technology Research Articles

Sustainable agriculture and GM crops: the case of Bt cotton impact in Ballari district of India.

Effects of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton are at the forefront of an intense debate on the benefits of genetically modified (GM) crops among smallholder farmers in developing countries. Existing studies fail to control for confounders, selection bias, or cultivation bias from preferential treatment in the initial adoption phase. Addressing these concerns in this paper, I examine the impact of Bt cotton employing an unbalanced panel fixed-effects model of a crop yield and profit function on newly collected plot-level data in the most recent decade. Results show that Bt cotton yields have stagnated, have a null effect on profits, and have become more sensitive to pest pressure in the most recent decade. Though many studies have demonstrated higher crop yield and profit gains in the first decade of Bt cotton adoption that raised the average returns to the technology, the second decade shows convergence in benefits, which raises obvious questions about the prospect of GM technology. Since Bt cotton is the only GM crop technology widely adopted by smallholder farmers, the findings of this paper contribute to the broader public debate on the future of agricultural biotechnology.

RISKS AND RISK ASSESSMENT OF GM CROPS WITH ADVANCED MODIFICATION TECHNOLOGIES

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been artificially modified by using genetic engineering techniques to enhance and altered their characteristics. Genetic engineering plays a significant role in the development of transgenic crops. The four crops canola, maize, cotton, and soybean are the most common ones to use GM crop technology, which has been used extensively for more than 20 years in a variety of nations. The two most significant GM crops in Pakistan are cotton and maize, both of which are resistant to weeds and insects. The impact studies of insect-resistant and herbicide-tolerant crops that are already available demonstrate the advantages of these techniques for both producers and consumers, as well as their favorable effects on both the environment and public health. Additionally, GM crops are a treatment for famine and malnutrition. Future uses may perhaps provide even greater benefits. Implementing an integrated strategy to pest management will be essential for food security, agricultural stability, and protection of the environment as the global population increases. Crops that have been genetically modified (GE) offer resistance to herbicides or protection from pests and diseases. Technology significantly decreases pest damage and improves crop production. As in the case of Bt cotton, pest-resistant genetically modified crops can support higher yields and agricultural development. We provide a thorough update on the status of the cultivated genetically modified (GM) crops in this paper. We address some vector based techniques for modification and some new approaches of transgene transfer without microbial vector insertion into recipient species In order to reduce the hazards associated with microbial vectors.

Modeling antecedent factors involved in behavioral intention towards technology application of genetically modified crops

ABSTRACT This research aimed to study behavioral intention toward genetically modified crop (GMC) technology. The statistical population was composed of all staff experts of Jihad-e Agriculture Organization of Iran (N = 837). The sample size was 310 agricultural experts taken by simple randomization. The data collection tool was a questionnaire. Data were analyzed by structural equations modeling. The results provided enough evidence to confirm the negative and significant effect of ethical concerns on behavioral intention toward GMC technology and the positive and significant effect of attitude toward technology and social impact on behavioral intention. According to the results, it is necessary to hold training courses inside and outside the country, adopt bottom-up management, use experienced and prospective managers, involve experts in planning and development of GMCs to a greater extent, and share personal experiences in training courses to change people’ attitude.

GM crop technology use 1996-2018: farm income and production impacts

ABSTRACT This paper estimates the global value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It follows and updates earlier studies which examined impacts on yields, key variable costs of production, direct farm (gross) income, and impacts on the production base of the four main crops of soybeans, corn, cotton, and canola. This updated analysis shows that there continues to be very significant net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $18.9 billion in 2018 and $225.1 billion for the period 1996–2018 (in nominal terms). These gains have been divided 52% to farmers in developing countries and 48% to farmers in developed countries. Seventy-two per cent of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with the remaining 28% coming from cost savings. The technology has also made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the four main crops, having, for example, added 278 million tonnes and 498 million tonnes, respectively, to the global production of soybeans and maize since the introduction of the technology in the mid-1990 s. In terms of investment, for each extra dollar invested in GM crop seeds (relative to the cost of conventional seed), farmers gained an average US $3.75 in extra income. In developing countries, the average return was $4.41 for each extra dollar invested in GM crop seed and in developed countries the average return was $3.24.

Regulatory Approach Towards GM Technology in India, USA and EU: A Comparative Analysis

The article mainly deals with the complications involved in the regulation of genetically modified (GM) technology in India by comparing it with the regulatory mechanisms developed in the USA and the European Union (EU). The only GM crop that has been approved for commercial cultivation in India is Bt cotton. It has been observed that apart from Bt cotton, whenever the Indian regulatory bodies tried to approve any other GM food crops, protests have erupted from several sections of the Indian civil society. As a result, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has been compelled to take political decision of not to allow GM crops for commercial cultivation. This led to the increase in the political conflict among supporters and detractors of GM crop technology. Both the USA and the EU have explicitly established either product-based or process-based regulatory approaches. But in India, the regulation is still evolving. In that respect, this article highlights some of the existing regulatory loopholes and kinds of confusions that prevail in Indian regulatory system.

Global networks of genetically modified crops technology: a patent citation network analysis

This paper employs the patent data of four major genetically modified (GM) crops, soybeans, cotton, maize and rapeseed, to illustratee how the innovation of GM crop technology diffused and distributed globally over time. Data collected from the Derwent Innovation Index, were employed to construct country patent citation networks, from 1984 to 2015, and the results revealed that developed countries were early adopters, and the primary actors in the innovation of GM crop technology. Only seven developing countries appeared in the country citation network. Most developed countries were reluctant to apply GM crop technology for commercial cultivation. Private businesses stood out in the patent citation network. The early adoption and better performance of developed countries can be explained by the activities of large established private companies.

Farmers’ attitude towards the use of genetically modified crop technology in Southern Ghana: The mediating role of risk perception

Food and agricultural policy research is often challenged with the issue of commercializing the application of transgenic technology in food production. There is a need for an enhanced understanding of how risk and benefit information influence the general attitudes of farmers towards genetically modified (GM) technology. This paper contributes to existing literature by studying the various adoption factors that influence Ghanaian farmers’ attitudes toward GM crop technology by using risk perception as a mediating tool. An empirical choice of methodology which is structural equation analysis was incorporated in this study. We report that, after conducting a survey among 325 respondents, Ghanaian farmers’ negative attitudes toward GM technology is as a result of the influence of risk perception on the attributes of the innovative technology (relative advantage, trialability, mass media, and interpersonal relations). We employ a conceptual framework that incorporates Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) and Risk analysis to assess the relationships between the attributes and attitudes towards GM technology. It was revealed in the structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis that, risk perception exerts a significant influence on the effects of the attributes of GM technology adoption thus reflecting a negative attitude towards the adoption of the related technology. We further discussed the implications for emphasizing the need for a positive attitude toward the acceptance and adoption of GM technology in Ghana.

Farm income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2016

ABSTRACTThis paper estimates the value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It follows and updates earlier annual studies which examined impacts on yields, key variable costs of production, direct farm (gross) income and impacts on the production base of the four main crops of soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. The commercialisation of GM crops has occurred at a rapid rate since the mid 1990s, with important changes in both the overall level of adoption and impact occurring in 2016. This annual updated analysis shows that there continues to be very significant net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $18.2 billion in 2016 and $186.1 billion for the period 1996–2016 (in nominal terms). These gains have been divided 48% to farmers in developed countries and 52% to farmers in developing countries. About 65% of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with the remaining 35% coming from cost savings. The technology has also made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the four main crops, having, for example, added 213 million tonnes and 405 million tonnes respectively, to the global production of soybeans and maize since the introduction of the technology in the mid 1990s.

An overview of genetically modified crop governance, issues and challenges in Malaysia.

The application of agricultural biotechnology attracts the interest of many stakeholders. Genetically modified (GM) crops, for example, have been rapidly increasing in production for the last 20 years. Despite their known benefits, GM crops also pose many concerns not only to human and animal health but also to the environment. Malaysia, in general, allows the use of GM technology applications but it has to come with precautionary and safety measures consistent with the international obligations and domestic legal frameworks. This paper provides an overview of GM crop technology from international and national context and explores the governance and issues surrounding this technology application in Malaysia. Basically, GM research activities in Malaysia are still at an early stage of research and development and most of the GM crops approved for release are limited for food, feed and processing purposes. Even though Malaysia has not planted any GM crops commercially, actions toward such a direction seem promising. Several issues concerning GM crops as discussed in this paper will become more complex as the number of GM crops and varieties commercialised globally increase and Malaysia starts to plant GM crops. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Farm income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2015

ABSTRACTThis paper provides an assessment of the value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It follows and updates earlier annual studies which examined impacts on yields, key variable costs of production, direct farm (gross) income and impacts on the production base of the 4 main crops of soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. The commercialisation of GM crops has occurred at a rapid rate since the mid 1990s, with important changes in both the overall level of adoption and impact occurring in 2015. This annual updated analysis shows that there continues to be very significant net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $15.4 billion in 2015 and $167.8 billion for the 20 year period 1996–2015 (in nominal terms). These gains have been divided 49% to farmers in developed countries and 51% to farmers in developing countries. About 72% of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with the remaining 28% coming from cost savings. The technology has also made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the 4 main crops, having, for example, added 180 million tonnes and 358 million tonnes respectively, to the global production of soybeans and maize since the introduction of the technology in the mid 1990s.

Global income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2014

ABSTRACTThis paper provides an economic assessment of the value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It follows and updates earlier annual studies which examined economic impacts on yields, key costs of production, direct farm income and effects, and impacts on the production base of the 4 main crops of soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. The commercialisation of GM crops has continued to occur at a rapid rate since the mid 1990s, with important changes in both the overall level of adoption and impact occurring in 2014. This annual updated analysis shows that there continues to be very significant net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $17.7 billion in 2014 and $150.3 billion for the 19-year period 1996–2014 (in nominal terms). These economic gains have been divided roughly 50% each to farmers in developed and developing countries. About 65% of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with the remaining 35% coming from cost savings. The technology has also made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the 4 main crops, having, for example, added 158 million tonnes and 322 million tonnes respectively, to the global production of soybeans and maize since the introduction of the technology in the mid 1990s.

Global income and production impacts of using GM crop technology 1996–2013

abstractThis paper provides an economic assessment of the value of using genetically modified (GM) crop technology in agriculture at the farm level. It follows and updates earlier annual studies which examined economic impacts on yields, key costs of production, direct farm income and effects, and impacts on the production base of the 4 main crops of soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. The commercialisation of GM crops has continued to occur at a rapid rate since the mid 1990s, with important changes in both the overall level of adoption and impact occurring in 2013. This annual updated analysis shows that there continues to be very significant net economic benefits at the farm level amounting to $20.5 billion in 2013 and $133.4 billion for the 18 years period (in nominal terms). These economic gains have been divided roughly 50% each to farmers in developed and developing countries. About 70% of the gains have derived from yield and production gains with the remaining 30% coming from cost savings. The technology have also made important contributions to increasing global production levels of the 4 main crops, having added 138 million tonnes and 273 million tonnes respectively, to the global production of soybeans and maize since the introduction of the technology in the mid 1990s.

Building effective agbiotech partnerships founded on trust: a summary of the challenges and practices in sub-Saharan Africa

The potential for improving the efficiency and success of partnerships in agricultural biotechnology is contingent on the presence of trust. As Stephen Covey (2006) asserts in his book The Speed of Trust, trust is the basis of the new global economy and is an essential element of any successful organization [1]. The presence of trust is particularly important in public-private partnerships (PPPs), in which partners with varied interests, goals, and operating principles embark on complex tasks within innovative ventures. Even more crucial is the role of trust in the success of agbiotech initiatives led by PPPs. This is cited throughout the literature on trust and has been confirmed by numerous agricultural stakeholders who participated in our case studies of agbiotech PPPs in Africa [2-9]. Stakeholders linked project successes with the establishment and maintenance of trust throughout the duration of their respective partnerships. When trust was broken or nonexistent in the partnerships, stakeholders reported an evident negative impact on the partnerships. In several cases, stakeholders cited instances in which the erosion of trust led to severed ties among stakeholders of the project or to slow progression of certain phases of the projects, such as product development or biosafety approval. From meeting with Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize farmers in South Africa and Egypt to chatting with Bt cotton farmers in Burkina Faso and regulators in Tanzania, several key lessons were derived on trust building for improving success in innovative PPP projects in subSaharan Africa. This was accomplished through direct observations, face-to-face interviews, and review of project documents. Public suspicion of the private sector and genetically modified (GM) technology was cited as a major barrier to building trust between the PPP projects and the public, and, occasionally, between the PPP projects and the regulatory bodies of the government. This challenge was brought up by stakeholders in several case studies, including those conducted in Burkina Faso [3], Nigeria [6] and Kenya [7]. Stakeholders mentioned that the public questions the motive behind the private sector’s involvement in agbiotech projects in Africa; the public suspects that the private sector is being driven solely by the profit motive. This challenge, posed by public suspicion, to establishing trust in the partnership proved more pervasive and difficult to overcome in projects that focused on the cultivation of crops for staple foods for human consumption—such as the Insect Resistance Maize for Africa (IRMA)—than in projects focused on non-food crops, such as the Bt cotton project in Burkina Faso. In some countries such as Burkina Faso and Uganda, the lack of sufficient community engagement during the research, development, and implementation phases of the projects created challenges to building trust in the partnerships [3,8]. Without community engagement, farmers and community members were often left uninformed—and thus, concerned—about the GM crop technology. For example, in Burkina Faso a significant challenge arose when researchers failed to communicate with journalists, who are the conduit through which information reaches the public. Instead of sharing information about the technology, researchers were referring journalists up the bureaucratic ladder [3]. Such disconnect between researchers’ knowledge of the technology and the uninformed community fostered public distrust in the technology and the research and development (R&D) process. This posed a significant challenge to the projects’ further outreach efforts to appeasing a skeptical and apprehensive public. Another challenge to trust building was the slow and often inconsistent regulatory processes through which project partners would have to navigate in order to receive approval for trials and commercialization. This challenge Sandra Rotman Centre, University Health Network and University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Full list of author information is available at the end of the article Ezezika Agriculture & Food Security 2012, 1(Suppl 1):S9 http://www.agricultureandfoodsecurity.com/content/1/S1/S9

Strategies for building trust with farmers: the case of Bt maize in South Africa

In 1999, South Africa became the first African country to approve commercial production of subsistence genetically modified (GM) maize. The introduction of GM crop technology is often met with skepticism by stakeholders including farmers. The involvement of the private sector in this process can further breed mistrust or misperceptions. To examine these issues more closely, the objective of this case study was to understand the role of trust in the public-private partnership (PPP) arrangement involved in the development of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) maize in South Africa. We conducted semi-structured, face-to-face interviews to obtain stakeholders’ understanding of trust in general as well as in the context of agricultural biotechnology (agbiotech) PPPs. A thematic analysis of the interview transcripts, documents, reports and research articles was conducted to generate insights into the challenges to, and practices for, building trust among the partners and with the public. The findings of this study are organized into four main lessons on trust building. First, as the end users of GM technology, farmers must be engaged from the start of the project through field demonstrations and educational activities. Second, an effective technology (i.e., the seed) is key to the success of an agbiotech PPP. Third, open communication and full disclosure between private sector companies and government regulatory bodies will build trust and facilitate the regulatory processes. Fourth, enforcing good agronomic practices, including appropriate management of the refuge areas, will serve the interests of both the farmers and the seed companies. Trust has proven to be a critical factor determining the success of the Bt maize project in South Africa. Distrust of the private sector and of GM technology were cited as major barriers to building trust. The trust-building practices described in this case study have often served to overcome these barriers; however, erosion of trust was also present. The success of the project has been, and will continue to be, dependent upon the concerted effort of the farmers, government, and private sector players in the establishment and maintenance of trust.

Transgenic Bt maize: farmers’ perceptions, refuge compliance and reports of stem borer resistance in South Africa

AbstractBased on surface area, South Africa is currently ranked the eighth in planting genetically modified (GM) crops in the world. Bt maize (MON810) has been grown to control lepidopterous stem borers in South Africa since its first release during 1998. The first report of resistance of the African maize stem borer, Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and poor compliance to refuge requirements that could have contributed to resistance development prompted this study which was done in the main maize production area of South Africa. Objectives were to evaluate farmer’s perceptions of the regulatory aspects guiding the planting of Bt maize and refugia and how it was applied between 1998 and 2010. This study involved 105 commercial farmers covering 87 778 ha of maize throughout the main maize production region on the Highveld of South Africa. A questionnaire survey was conducted and addressed signing of technical agreements upon purchasing GM seed, refuge compliance, pest management practices, perceived benefits and risks relating to Bt maize. Compliance with refugia requirements was low especially during the initial 5–7 years after release. An alarmingly high number of farmers applied insecticides as preventative sprays on Bt maize and refugia irrespective of stem borer infestation levels. A large proportion of farmers reported significant borer infestation levels on Bt maize and between 5% and 93% farmers in all districts applied insecticides to Bt maize to limit borer damage, indicating that the occurrence of resistance is more wide‐spread in the country than previously thought. This study shows irresponsible management of GM crop technology by farmers, chemical and seed companies. Concerns and perceptions of farmers in South Africa seem to differ from those in Europe. South African farmers perceived little, if any, negative impact on non‐target organisms and remain positive about the technology in spite of resistance development. Other studies indicated that European farmers were concerned about these aspects. A shared concern, however, was consumer acceptance of GM maize and marketability on the export market.

Tanzanian farmers' knowledge and attitudes to GM biotechnology and the potential use of GM crops to provide improved levels of food security. A Qualitative Study

BackgroundGenetically Modified (GM) crops have been championed as one possible method to improve food security and individual nutritional status in sub Saharan Africa. Understanding and acceptability of GM crop technology to farmers and consumers have not been assessed. We developed a qualitative research study involving farmers as both producers and consumers to gauge the understanding of GM crop technology, its acceptability, and identifying issues of concern.MethodsNineteen individual interviews (10 male and 9 female) and five mixed gender focus group discussions with local farmers were conducted in 3 regions in Tanzania. Analysis took place concurrently with data collection. Following initial interviews, subsequent questions were adjusted based on emerging themes.ResultsUnderstanding, awareness and knowledge of GM crop technology and terminology and its potential risks and benefits was very poor in all regions. Receptivity to the potential use of GM crops was, however, high. Respondents focused on the potential benefits of GM crops rather than any potential longer term health risks. A number of factors, most significantly field trial data, would influence farmers' decisions regarding the introduction of GM crop varieties into their farming practice. Understanding of the potential improved health provision possible by changes in agricultural practice and food-related decision making, and the health benefits of a diet containing essential vitamins, minerals and micronutrients is also poor in these communities.ConclusionThis study forms a basis from which further research work can be undertaken. It is important to continue to assess opinions and attitudes of farmers and consumers in sub Saharan Africa towards potential use of GM technologies whilst highlighting the importance of the relationship between agriculture, health and development. This will allow people in the region to make accurate, informed decisions about whether they believe use of GM biotechnology is an appropriate way in which to tackle issues of food security, provide improved health and drive development.

Upstream engagement and the governance of science. The shadow of the genetically modified crops experience in Europe.

Synthetic biology represents a fusion of the pragmatic and the idealistic, which is motivated by the drive for a better understanding of biological processes, and the desire to deliver the social and commercial benefits that the science seems to promise (Tait, 2009). Most scientists working in universities and commercial companies are guided by a mixture of these motivations. However, in the background, a shadow looms over many of the life sciences, pointing to a complex and possibly difficult future—the question of public acceptance of the science and technology. Echoing this tension, many European governments, including the European Union (EU) itself, are caught between a desire to promote innovation, and the political need to accommodate a wide range of public‐interest groups with precautionary concerns about environmental and health issues. > …a shadow looms over many of the life sciences, pointing to a complex and possibly difficult future—the question of public acceptance of the science and technology The shadow over the life sciences is most substantive in the context of genetically modified (GM) crops—any discussion among scientists and policy‐makers about future developments comes around, eventually, to the need to avoid a repetition of the European debate on GM crops and its outcome. Although this controversy was most virulent during the period from 1998 to 2002, it rapidly resurfaces in response to any positive or even neutral news item about GM crops. The effect of this opposition to GM crops by public‐interest groups should not be underestimated. Publications and reports that do not take an anti‐GM perspective regularly come under attack. A recent explanatory review of a range of GM crop issues (Sense about Science, 2009) led to challenges related to the independence of the scientists who had contributed to it (Corbyn, 2009). The publication of a report showing that GM crop technology is …

Protecting Biotechnology IPRs in Developing Countries: Simple Analytics of a Levy Solution

AbstractHigh transaction costs and an absence of institutional infrastructure in developing countries prevent comprehensive enforcement of intellectual property rights and generate obstacles to the adoption of genetically modified (GM) crop technology. Governments of developing countries that are members of the World Trade Organization are faced with two options when licensing GM crop technology: (1) attempt to regulate GM crops to the standards of the Agreement on Trade‐Related Aspects of Intellectual Property (TRIPS) or (2) allow a black market in GM seeds and risk trade retaliation from the GM innovator's host country through a TRIPS trade complaint. This paper develops a conceptual model that frames the adopting country's range of licensing options, including a new levy system, and derives welfare measures for each option. The model illustrates how a levy on GM technology can be a welfare‐increasing policy for developing countries, and the operation of a levy is discussed. The conceptual model is applied to Brazil's soybean market and quantitative economic surplus measures are estimated within a calibrated welfare model for a range of licensing scenarios. The model's results suggest that a levy may interfere with the long‐term prospects for innovators to collect monopoly rents in adopting countries.

GM crop technology and trade restraints: economic implications for Australia and New Zealand*

How much might the potential economic benefit from enhanced farm productivity associated with crop biotechnology adoption by Australia and New Zealand (ANZ) be offset by a loss of market access abroad for crops that may contain genetically modified (GM) organisms? This paper uses the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model to estimate effects of other countries' GM policies without and with ANZ farmers adopting GM varieties of various grains and oilseeds. The gross economic benefits to ANZ from adopting GM crops under a variety of scenarios could be positive even if the strict controls on imports from GM‐adopting countries by the European Union are maintained, but not if North‐East Asia also applied such trade restaints. From those gross economic effects would need to be subtracted society's evaluation of any new food safety concerns and negative environmental externalities (net of any new environmental and occupational health benefits), as well as any extra costs of segregation, identity preservation and consumer search.

Commercial use of GM crop technology: Identifying the drivers using life cycle methodology in a technology foresight framework

The complexity and advanced nature of modern biotechnology, and its extensive implications for society regarding prosperity, risk and ethics, make a view of the future that is comprehensible and transparent to society desirable. The objective of this feasibility study was to investigate methodologies for strategic planning and regulatory decision-making in technologies involving genetically modified (GM) crops. The planning and regulatory decisions of both the biotechnology industry and public authorities are considered. In the study, knowledge and opinion about a well-defined problem complex are systematically brought together in the consultation of a larger number of stakeholders and experts representing as many major perspectives as possible. On the basis of a test case on the development of a GM-ryegrass, this paper suggests a methodological approach to the uncertainties faced by the biotech industry and public authorities when GM crops are commercialized. The method used was a technology foresight (TF) framework, using a life cycle inventory (LCI) to define the problem complex, a stakeholder panel to identify drivers (of change) that influence the direction of future developments, and weighted stakeholder questionnaires to prioritize these drivers. Once quantified, the weighted stakeholder opinion generated a clear criterion for prioritizing drivers that were judged to be important in the future development of a GM-ryegrass but whose precise impact was uncertain. The four drivers prioritized were: being the first to market the GM-ryegrass, an efficient network on biomolecular know-how, public dialogue and participation in regulation procedures and utility value.