Genetic Resources For Agriculture Research Articles

Consumer and citizen roles and motives in the valuation of agricultural genetic resources in Finland

This study analysed consumer and citizen roles in contingent valuation of a conservation programme of agricultural genetic resources and a native breed product. The willingness to pay (WTP) for the conservation programme (€48) was mainly driven by perceived taxpayer responsibility and existence and use motives, while the WTP for the product (price premium of 14%) was to a larger extent associated with perceived purchaser responsibility. We identified four respondent groups: those who emphasized citizens' or consumers' roles, indifferent and negative, which differed in terms of their conservation motivations, responsibility perceptions and WTP. Furthermore, the results emphasize that citizen and consumer roles overlap, and individuals may act as either or both in the context of a purchasing decision and a taxpayers' decision of policy support. Although the conservation programme received more support, future conservation could partly be based on the consumption of specialty products.

Citizens' preferences for the conservation of agricultural genetic resources.

Evaluation of conservation policies for agricultural genetic resources (AgGR) requires information on the use and non-use values of plant varieties and animal breeds, as well as on the preferences for in situ and ex situ conservation. We conducted a choice experiment to estimate citizens' willingness to pay (WTP) for AgGR conservation programmes in Finland, and used a latent class model to identify heterogeneity in preferences among respondent groups. The findings indicate that citizens have a high interest in the conservation of native breeds and varieties, but also reveal the presence of preference heterogeneity. Five respondent groups could be identified based on latent class modeling: one implying lexicographic preferences, two with reasoned choices, one indicating uncertain support and one with a preference for the current status of conservation. The results emphasize the importance of in situ conservation of native cattle breeds and plant varieties in developing conservation policies.

The yellow–purple Polignano carrot (Daucus carota L.): a multicoloured landrace from the Puglia region (Southern Italy) at risk of genetic erosion

In order to help conserve genetic resources in agriculture, the Puglia Regional Administration (Southern Italy) planned two specific actions under its 2007–2013 Rural Development Programme. This led to several activities being carried out for some local varieties, including the so-called “yellow–purple Polignano carrot”, a multi-coloured landrace grown by a handful of old farmers who act as seed savers. The roots of this landrace, which is grown without fertilizer near the sea, have interesting visual, sensorial and nutritional traits as well as great potential for culinary applications and promising uses as raw material for new food products. However, this interesting landrace is grown on only a few hectares and is regarded as a vegetable at risk of genetic erosion. This note contains information on the yellow–purple Polignano carrot, with the aim of safeguarding some of the indigenous knowledge on the landrace and stimulating research activities that may lead to breeding programmes or commercial production improvement.

Development of microsatellite markers at the National Agrobiodiversity Center in Korea for the genetic assessment of underutilized crops

The RDA Genebank at the National Agrobiodiversity Center (NAAS, RDA, Republic of Korea) has conserved about 182,000 accessions in 1777 species and is working at preserving agricultural genetic resources for the conservation and sustainable utilization of genetic diversity. The detection of genetic variability in conserved resources is important for germplasm management, but the molecular evaluation tools providing genetic information are insufficient for underutilized crops, unlike those for major crops. In this regard, the Korean National Agrobiodiversity Center has been developing microsatellite markers for several underutilized crops. We designed 3640 primer pairs flanking simple sequence repeat (SSR) motifs for 6310 SSR clones in 21 crop species. Polymorphic loci were revealed in each species (7–36), and the mean ratio of polymorphic loci to all the loci tested was 12%. The average allele number was 5.1 (2.8–10.3) and the expected heterozygosity 0.51 (0.31–0.74). Some SSRs were transferable to closely related species, such as within the generaFagopyrumandAllium. These SSR markers might be used for studying the genetic diversity of conserved underutilized crops.

Citizens’ preferences for policies to conserve agricultural genetic resources

The intensification of agriculture has led to remarkable changes in the utilization of agricultural genetic resources and many previously common breeds and varieties have become rare or even endangered (FAO 2007, 2010, Drucker, Gomez & Anderson 2001). In Finland, Eastern and Northern Finncattle, the Kainuu Grey Sheep and the Åland Sheep are endangered according to the FAO classification (FAO 2003) and, for example, majority of the old Finnish crop varieties and Finnish landrace pig are already extinct. Making informed decisions on the appropriate focus and extent of conservation of agricultural genetic resources requires information on both the costs and benefits of conservation. Economic analyses involving the valuation of conservation benefits can guide resource allocation of various types of genetic resources and conservation methods (Artuso 1998). The value of genetic resources is not typically revealed by markets, as they are not directly traded in the markets or the prices of agricultural products do not completely indicate their value (Oldfield 1989, Brown 1990, Drucker et al. 2001). Although the importance of economic analyses has been recognized, the literature on the monetary value of genetic resources in agriculture is relatively limited (see e.g. Evenson et al. 1998 and Rege and Gibson 2003, Ahtiainen & Pouta 2011). Currently the conservation policy of farm agricultural genetic resources in Finland is based on international agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) and the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic resources (FAO 2007). National genetic resource programs were initiated for plants in 2003 and for farm animals in 2005 to strengthen the conservation of genetic resources in Finland. Although there has been some progress in the implementation of the programs, they have also suffered from shortage of funds and lack of political interest in conservation. To re-evaluate the conservation policy, there is a need to use valuation methods capable of estimating also the non-use value components of genetic resources, i.e. stated preference methods. The choice experiment (CE) method has been found suitable to valuing genetic resources due to its flexibility and ability to value the traits of breeds or varieties and their attributes. Choice experiment makes it possible to value benefits of both plant genetic resources (PGR) and animal genetic resources (AnGR). The terms refer to all cultivated plant species and varieties, as well as all animal species and breeds that are of interest in terms of food and agricultural production. The CE method can also be used to evaluate the means of conservation in situ (live animals and plants) and ex situ (as seeds, cryopreserved embryos and other genetic material). Previous choice experiments have focused on valuing breeds or varieties and their attributes, especially on attributes that are related to the use of the breed or variety in agriculture (Birol et al. 2006, Ouma et al. 2007). In this study we present the results of a choice experiment valuing the benefits of a genetic resource conservation program in Finland. We test the effect of in situ and ex situ conservation on citizen choices between programs. We also analyse whether the plant varieties and animal breeds are perceived equally valuable by citizen. As the conservation of agricultural genetic resources (AgGR) cannot be expected to be equally valuable to all citizens, we analyse the existence of citizen segments that value differently the conservation of genetic resources. We can assume that AgGR is a rather unknown good for some of the respondents of the valuation survey. However, in valuation surveys respondents are assumed to make “informed” choices when responding to value elicitation questions (e.g. Blomquist &Whitehead 1998). Therefore, we offered an opportunity for respondents to obtain further information on AgGR. In our case, the internet-based survey allowed us also to measure how much time respondents took in reading the information and responding to questions. Furthermore, we also measured response certainty and tested the effects of uncertainty and information as reasons for heterogeneity.

CITIZENS' PREFERENCES FOR POLICIES TO CONSERVE AGRICULTURAL GENETIC RESOURCES

To evaluate conservation policies of agricultural genetic resources (AgGR), information on the use and non-use values of plant varieties and animal breeds, as well as on the preferences for in situ and ex situ conservation are needed. Here we present the results of a choice experiment of AgGR conservation programs in Finland. The findings indicate that citizens’ have high interest in the conservation of native breeds and varieties, but also that there is heterogeneity in preferences between citizens. Five groups can be identified: one implying lexicographic preferences, two with reasoned choices, one indicating ambivalence and one with status quo preferences.

Sustainability and climate variability in low-input peasant maize systems in the central Mexican highlands

One of the most important challenges for agriculture is addressing high climatic variability by creating productive, resilient and adaptable systems that are highly efficient in terms of water and energy use and having the aims of neither degrading nor contaminating the environment. In Mexico, these characteristics are fulfilled by many seasonal peasant agricultural systems. Systems utilizing native seeds produce an important portion of white maize for human consumption in addition to safeguarding key agricultural genetic resources. This article evaluates the sustainability of such systems and describes the current challenges and opportunities in a representative peasant community in the watershed of Lago de Pátzcuaro in Mexico. Community farming and livestock management practices were analyzed, and ecological, economic and social indicators were measured over a two-year period. During the first year, low-input systems, which are based on the use of organic fertilizers and crop rotation, provided better results in terms of ecological indicators and equal results in terms of economic and social indicators than those achieved using a high chemical input system. In the second year, which featured early frosts and a winter drought, productivity declined in all systems; however, the most diversified systems (in terms of the maize varieties grown and the sowing of other crops) more successfully resisted these climatic adversities.

MULTIFUNCTIONAL MUTANTS OF Azospirillum sp. WITH ENHANCED CAPABILITY OF SOLUBILIZING PHOSPHORUS, FIXING NITROGEN AND PRODUCING INDOLE ACETIC ACID

Azospirillum sp. have long been known as biofertilizer for plant growth because of its capability to produce phytohormones and fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Multifunctional Azospirillum strain Aj Bandung 6.4.1.2 isolated in 2009 from cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) rhizosphere in Lembang, Bandung, West Java, was capable of fixing nitrogen, solubilizing tricalcium-phosphate, and producing phytohormone indole acetic acid (IAA). The study aimed to modify the multifunctions of Azos-pirillum sp. for better capability of fixing N2, solubilizing P, and producing IAA using ethyl methanesulfonate and 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine (EMS) mutagen. The study was conducted at Indonesian Center for Agricultural Biotechnology and Genetic Resources Research and Development (ICABIOGRAD) in 2010. The results showed that this strain was genetically mutagenized using EMS for better performance in solubilizing P, fixing N2 (nitrogenase activity), and producing phytohormone (IAA). The optimum concentration and the length of incubation time for the process have been determined. Nine selected mutants with increasing capability to solubilize P (determined by clear-zone formation on Pikovskaya’s medium) have been characterized for nitrogenase activities and IAA production compared to wild type Aj Bandung 6.4.1.2. The effect of mutagenesis on IAA produc-tion and nitrogenase activities varied among the mutans. Two mutants, AzM 3.7.1.16 and AzM 1.7.2.12, showed superiority in the production of IAA, while two mutants, AzM 1.5.1.14 and AzM 3.7.1.15, were superior in nitrogenase activities. The EMS mutagenesis of Azospirillum sp. showed enhanced dissolving capa-bility of unsoluble phosphate (tricalciumphosphate) and increased IAA production and nitrogenase activity. <br /><br />

MULTIFUNCTIONAL MUTANTS OF Azospirillum sp. WITH ENHANCED CAPABILITY OF SOLUBILIZING PHOSPHORUS, FIXING NITROGEN AND PRODUCING INDOLE ACETIC ACID

Azospirillum sp. have long been known as biofertilizer for plant growth because of its capability to produce phytohormones and fix nitrogen from the atmosphere. Multifunctional Azospirillum strain Aj Bandung 6.4.1.2 isolated in 2009 from cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) rhizosphere in Lembang, Bandung, West Java, was capable of fixing nitrogen, solubilizing tricalcium-phosphate, and producing phytohormone indole acetic acid (IAA). The study aimed to modify the multifunctions of Azos-pirillum sp. for better capability of fixing N2, solubilizing P, and producing IAA using ethyl methanesulfonate and 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine (EMS) mutagen. The study was conducted at Indonesian Center for Agricultural Biotechnology and Genetic Resources Research and Development (ICABIOGRAD) in 2010. The results showed that this strain was genetically mutagenized using EMS for better performance in solubilizing P, fixing N2 (nitrogenase activity), and producing phytohormone (IAA). The optimum concentration and the length of incubation time for the process have been determined. Nine selected mutants with increasing capability to solubilize P (determined by clear-zone formation on Pikovskaya’s medium) have been characterized for nitrogenase activities and IAA production compared to wild type Aj Bandung 6.4.1.2. The effect of mutagenesis on IAA produc-tion and nitrogenase activities varied among the mutans. Two mutants, AzM 3.7.1.16 and AzM 1.7.2.12, showed superiority in the production of IAA, while two mutants, AzM 1.5.1.14 and AzM 3.7.1.15, were superior in nitrogenase activities. The EMS mutagenesis of Azospirillum sp. showed enhanced dissolving capa-bility of unsoluble phosphate (tricalciumphosphate) and increased IAA production and nitrogenase activity. <br /><br />

The implications of climate change for positive contributions of invertebrates to world agriculture.

Abstract Terrestrial invertebrate species play a dominant role in the trophic dynamics of agricultural ecosystems. Subtle changes in the composition of communities and species interactions at different trophic levels, and role of ecosystem engineers can dramatically modify the effects of invertebrates on plant productivity in agricultural systems. The effect of climate change on relevant invertebrates in agricultural systems, and their potential to adapt or move is discussed. All terrestrial systems (including forestry and pasture) are considered, although the main focus is on crop production systems. Our treatise centres on whole organisms (as opposed to genetic information from invertebrates) that play key roles in agricultural systems. We start with an overview of current thinking on how climate change may affect invertebrates. Then, recognizing the great invertebrate biodiversity associated with agro-ecosystems, the review focuses on three key groups - soil invertebrates, biological control agents and pollinators. A variety of research gaps became apparent during the course of our review. Specific conclusions regarding the impact of climate change on particular elements of invertebrate genetic resources in agriculture are not possible yet. Existing evidence suggests that three general assumptions can be made. First, it is probable that climate change will disrupt to varying degrees the role and use of invertebrates in agriculture, especially sustainable agriculture, even though the precise nature of the disruptions is not yet known. Second, without intervention, these disruptions will result in production losses particularly in sustainable agriculture, even though the scale and extent of the losses is not yet known. Third, the extent of some of the losses will justify intervention to facilitate adaptations of the invertebrates, even though the methods with which to intervene and policies to facilitate this intervention are not yet in place.

Integrating Intellectual Property Rights and Development Policy in Agriculture, Biotechnology and Genetic Resources

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive background and overview of key issues, debates and positions related to the international regulation and application of intellectual property rights over agriculture, genetic resources, including biotechnology and the use of IPR's as plant and intellectual property protection. It explores the linkages among biological diversity, biotechnology developments and intellectual property with specific view on the relationship between access to biological and genetic resources, agriculture systems and increased poverty levels in India. This paper examines the significance of intellectual property rights in agricultural innovations, genetic resources and biotechnology and the possibilities for the protection through the context of the TRIPS and the WTO agreement on Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights. With the growth of private investment in developing country, agriculture, genetic resources, new advances in the biotechnology, and rapid integration of developing countries into the global trading system, intellectual property rights (IPRs) have become an important concern in the agricultural sector. The paper focuses specifically on the case of India and other developing countries, implementing IPRs in agriculture and Biotechnology. Findings indicate that yields grew significantly during the last two decades due to the combination of public investment in hybrid breeding programs that generated new materials offering substantial yield gains, and biological IPRs conferred by hybridization that conveniently need for substantial productivity growth in agriculture.

The value of genetic resources in agriculture: a meta-analysis assessing existing knowledge and future research needs

The protection of genetic resources in agriculture is an important aspect of biodiversity conservation. Knowledge of the value of genetic resources can contribute to determining the appropriate focus and extent of conservation. This study reviewed and summarised literature on the economic value of genetic resources using meta-analysis. Altogether, 22 studies were used to describe current knowledge on the value of genetic resources. Furthermore, 14 studies with 93 value observations were examined with a meta-regression model to identify variables that explain the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for or willingness-to-accept (WTA) loss of genetic resources. Grain genetic resources were ascribed lower value compared to animal genetic resources (AnGR) and agrobiodiversity, and the values of breeds or varieties and conservation programmes were higher than the value of individual attributes. Future research should address the gaps in knowledge that are relevant for policy-making. This particularly includes improving knowledge on the value of plant genetic resources (PGR), obtaining value estimates for maintaining genetic diversity in Europe and the United States, estimating the relative magnitude of use and non-use values and determining the value consumers place on genetic resources and diversity in agriculture. An extensive database with valuation literature on genetic resources that fulfils the requirements for benefit transfer is essential to utilise value information more efficiently in decision-making situations.

EFFECT OF POST HARVEST FRUIT CONDITIONING OF TWO DIFFERENT PLUM CULTIVARS: FIRST RESULTS ON QUALITATIVE TRAITS EVOLUTION

In recent years the issues of safeguarding biodiversity and protecting and conserving genetic resources in agriculture have become of growing interest to the scientific world as well as stimulating political and public opinion in general. This stimulated the foundation of projects aimed at the safeguarding, conservation and exploitation of indigenous genetic resources. Indeed, wherever possible, in the current socioeconomic context the commercial exploitation of indigenous accessions and cultivars may make their safeguarding more justifiable. For many of these genetic resources, in this case old fruit tree cultivars, the possibility of their commercial exploitation is enhanced by their excellent characteristics. This awareness has stimulated several measures aimed at the exploitation of products belonging to the local germplasm and many programmes aimed at the preservation and commercial diffusion of indigenous cultivars and accessions of fruit trees species, considered of great value. Obviously, the entry of a product into the marketing circuit depends much on its shelf life and storability. Therefore, in recent years several research programs to improve the conditions of the storage of these products and to extend their period of availability on the market have been made. This type of research is very important for fruit cultivars belonging to the local germplasm, and it was considered useful to extend this study to include two plum cultivars belonging to the Sicilian germoplasm, which were already included in a program of safeguarding and conservation of local plant resources. These cultivars have already fairly good distribution on the local market and the recognition of their high value warrants their wider exploitation on national markets.

A global view of livestock biodiversity and conservation – GLOBALDIV

GLOBALDIV--a global view of livestock biodiversity and conservation--is a three-year project funded by the European Commission in the framework of the AGRI GEN RES initiative. It is formed by a core group of partners who participated in past EU or continental scale projects on Farm Animal Genetic Resources characterization and conservation. It also involves a much larger number of experts that are actively contributing to the success of the initiative. The project aims at improving the conservation, characterisation, collection and utilisation of genetic resources in agriculture in EU and beyond, complementing and promoting work undertaken in the Member States at the Community level and facilitating co-ordination of international undertakings on genetic resources in agriculture.

Microsatellite variability and genetic structure in hazelnut ( Corylus avellana L.) cultivars from different growing regions

The European AGRI GEN RES 068 (Genetic Resources in Agriculture) project acronymed SAFENUT (‘Safeguard of almond and hazelnut genetic resources: from traditional uses to modern agro-industrial opportunities’) is aimed at increasing the knowledge on the European germplasm of hazelnut ( Corylus avellana L.). In this context, the study of the genetic structure of hazelnut cultivated germplasm is an important goal and requires the choice of proper molecular markers. In the present work, microsatellite data obtained at 16 SSR loci for 75 accessions from Spain, Italy, Turkey, and Iran were elaborated for the analysis of marker information content, the genetic structure of hazelnut cultivar gene pools, and the differentiation among cultivars sampled in the four regions. Data elaborations allowed to further develop the information reported in literature and to select a set of SSR loci to be proposed as molecular descriptors for hazelnut. A high level of genetic diversity was detected in all investigated cultivars. An excess of heterozygosity was observed in Spanish and Turkish gene pools, while a heterozygosis deficit was observed in Iranian samples. Genetic differentiation among cultivars from different regions was significant, even in the case of genetically close groups such as the Spanish and Italian ones. Nevertheless, the Italian accessions from Liguria region (North-West Italy) resulted genetically closer to varieties of Turkish origin than to Italian ones. Statistical analysis indicated that hazelnut appears to have been domesticated independently in the four areas, suggesting that present cultivars have a multiple origin.

PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY IN SAFFRON: THE CROCUSBANK PROJECT AND THE WORLD SAFFRON AND CROCUS COLLECTION

ISHS III International Symposium on Saffron: Forthcoming Challenges in Cultivation, Research and Economics PRESERVING BIODIVERSITY IN SAFFRON: THE CROCUSBANK PROJECT AND THE WORLD SAFFRON AND CROCUS COLLECTION

The importance and implication of genetic resources in agriculture

The maintenance and preservation of biodiversity is going through the processes of conservation and restoration of disturbed ecosystems and habitats, as well as the preservation and recovery of species. Genetic diversity means the variety and total number of genes contained in plant and animal species and microorganisms. Genetic diversity is the basic unit of diversity, which is responsible for differences between individuals, populations and species. Genetic diversity is very important for the preservation of biodiversity and can be saved in several ways. Part of the germplasm is maintained through breeding programs as they evaluate germplasm stored and used as a source of needed diversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity is one of the most important international agreements to protect nature and conserve genetic resources. International treaties governing the use of genetic resources for food and agriculture are a way to ensure the conservation and sustainable use of plant resources for food and agriculture, and to regulate the rights of farmers.

Conflicts in environmental regulation and the internationalisation of the state: contested terrains

Introduction: Genetic Resources and the Internationalisation of the State 1. The Regulation of Nature in Post-Fordism 2. On the Value of Nature: The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Commercialisation of Genetic Resources 3. Limits to Commercialisation?: Genetic Resources in Agriculture and the Conflict over a Multilateral Exchange System 4. Politicising Intellectual Property Rights: The Conflicts around the TRIPS Agreement and the World Intellectual Property Organisation 5. The Relevance of the National and the Local: The Disputes over a Valorization Paradigm in Mexico and Chiapas 6. Contested Terrains: Towards a Neo-Poulantzian Approach to International Political Economy

Seed Legislation and agrobiodiversity: conservation varieties

European seed policies and legislation have contributed to fostering a system in which fewer varieties are traded in ever bigger markets in accordance with the law of economy of scale. Informal seed systems have been marginalised and perceived as outdated in a scenario in which the agricultural system was being modernised. In 1998, however, the European Union recognised the need to conserve agricultural genetic resources and created a catalogue specially for registering what it called ‘conservation varieties’. In June 2008 an EU Directive was issued regulating the agricultural species involved. So what is this ‘new’ category of variety. What impact will it have in supporting the informal conservation initiatives in agricultural biodiversity and making them legitimate? This article sets out to address these questions by analysing the concept of conservation variety from when the phrase was coined up to the recent European directive 62/2008. After describing and evaluating the impact that the directive may have, Italian regulation on conservation varieties will be analysed focusing on synergies and diversities. Lastly, in the light of the International Treaty on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, attention will turn to the regulations in order to verify how they correspond.

Inventing Seed: The Nature(s) of Intellectual Property in Plants

This paper explores some of the inequities in the ways in which intellectual property has been applied to agricultural plant genetic resources, focusing primarily on patents. In particular, it is concerned with the importance of what counts as ‘nature’ in making the distinction between something that is ‘invented’ and something that is merely ‘discovered’—a distinction that is at the heart of patent law (although not always made in these terms). While discoveries are understood to be mere revealings of nature, genuine inventions are considered to be human products, and therefore eligible for patent protection. What counts as nature in this discourse, and which kinds of human labour are taken to be genuinely inventive, is, therefore, a highly consequential issue. Ultimately, I argue for both the exposure of the noninnocent and highly political way in which ‘nature’ is formed, and the importance of more honest ways of characterising the coming-into-being of new plant varieties. The final section points to some existing proposals and projects that might help us to build systems of property in this area that are both more equitable and that acknowledge the contributions and needs of all of the diverse actors—human and not—involved in the ‘emergence’ of agricultural biodiversity.