FT Gene Research Articles

AINTEGUMENTA-LIKE genes regulate reproductive growth and bud dormancy in Platanus acerifolia.

Platanus acerifolia AIL genes PaAIL5a/b and PaAIL6b participate in FT-AP1/FUL-AIL pathways to regulate bud dormancy. In addition, PaAIL6a/b can promote flowering, and PaAIL5b and PaAIL6b affect floral development. Bud dormancy and floral induction are essential processes for perennial plants, they are both regulated by photoperiod, temperature, and hormones, indicating the existence of common regulators for both processes. AINTEGUMENTA-LIKE (AIL) genes regulate reproductive growth of annual plants, including floral induction and flower development, and their homologs in poplar and grape act downstream of the florigen gene FT and the floral meristem identity genes AP1/FUL and function to maintain growth and thus inhibit dormancy induction. However, it is not known whether AIL homologs participate in the reproduction processes in perennials and whether the Platanus acerifolia AIL genes are involved in dormancy. P. acerifolia is a perennial woody plant whose reproductive growth is strongly associated with dormancy. Here, we isolated four AIL homologs from P. acerifolia, PaAIL5a, PaAIL5b, PaAIL6a, and PaAIL6b, and systematically investigated their functions by ectopic-overexpression in tobacco. The findings demonstrate that PaAIL5a/b and PaAIL6b respond to short day, low temperature, and hormone signals and act as the components of the FT-AP1/FUL-AIL pathway to regulate the bud dormancy in P. acerifolia. Notably, PaAIL5a/b and PaAIL6b function downstream of PaFTL-PaFUL1/2/3 to inhibit the dormancy induction and downstream of PaFT-PaFUL2/3 to promote the dormancy release. In addition, PaAIL6a/b were found to accelerate flowering in transgenic tobacco, whereas PaAIL5b and PaAIL6b affected the flower development. Together, our results suggest that PaAIL genes may act downstream of different PaFT/PaFTL and PaFUL proteins to fulfill conservative and diverse roles in floral initiation, floral development, and dormancy regulation in P. acerifolia.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Mature Leaves of Dimocarpus longan cv. ‘Sijimi’ Provides Insight into Its Continuous-Flowering Trait

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) is an important tropical and subtropical fruit, and most of its cultivars bloom once a year (once-flowering, OF). Dimocarpus longan cv. ‘Sijimi’ (SJ) is a tropical ecotype variety that blooms several times a year (continuous-flowering, CF) without the need for low-temperature induction. Several studies have focused on the mechanism of continuous flowering in SJ longan; however, none used leaves as research material. As leaves are a key organ in sensing floral-induction signals, we compared gene-expression differences between mature leaves of CF (SJ) and OF (D. longan cv. ‘Shixia’ (SX) and D. longan cv. ‘Chuliang’ (CL)) longan by transcriptome sequencing. An average of 47,982,637, 43,833,340 and 54,441,291 clean reads were obtained for SJ, SX and CL respectively, and a total of 6745 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected. Following Metabolic pathways, Plant-pathogen interaction and Biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, most of the other genes were assigned to the KEGG classifications of MAPK signaling pathway- plant, Plant hormone signal transduction, Amino sugar and nucleotide sugar metabolism and Starch and sucrose metabolism. WGCNA analysis clustered genes into 27 modules, among which bisque4 and darkorange2 module genes specifically were expressed at low and high levels in SJ, respectively. Different gene-expression patterns were detected between CF and OF longan in bisque4 and darkorange2 modules, especially the high levels of transcription factor (TF) expression and the large number of gibberellic acid (GA)-signaling-pathway-specific genes expressed at high levels in CF longan (SJ). Floral-induction-gene expression levels in CF longan, such as levels of GA-signaling-related and FT genes, were always high. In CF longan, after vegetative-growth accumulation, flowers could be directly induced, thereby eliminating the need for low-temperature induction.

The RNA-seq and BSA-seq analysis reveals genes associated to the control of early fruiting in walnut (Juglans regia L.)

Walnut is an important nut worldwide. The duration of the juvenile phase has a considerable impact on walnut yield. Floral transition is critical for walnut flowering and fruit setting. To improve walnut breeding, it is critical to study the mechanisms of early blooming and fruiting in early-fruiting (EF) walnuts and shorten their juvenile stages. This work used EF and later-fruiting (LF) walnuts to screen for genes associated with walnut early fruiting using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) and bulk segregant analysis sequencing (BSA-seq). Thirty-seven key differential genes were analyzed using weighted gene co-expression network association (WGCNA) in RNA-seq, and FT, CAL, FUL, and APRR9 genes were found to be able to shorten the juvenile phase of plants by affecting the floral transition process and influencing plant fruiting time. BSA-seq was utilized to identify 3305656 SNPs and 596640 InDels in EF walnut and 925347 SNPs and 514751 InDels in LF walnut. A combined analysis of RNA-seq and BSA-seq revealed 49 structurally varied DEGs in both kinds, with 47 genes in the NC_049914.1 region, one gene in NC_049901.1, one gene locus in NC_049908.1, and eight structurally variant DEGs found solely in early fruiting walnuts. The analysis of candidate genes and verification of RT-qPCR expression revealed that JrLOC109015871 (JrPBL12), JrLOC108983551 (WRI1-like), JrLOC109016788 (WRKY12), and AP2-like genes are likely to be related to early fruiting of walnut, with WRKY12 being expressed at the highest level during the flowering peak of early fruiting walnut. It is likely that the WRKY12 gene regulates the flowering transition of walnut through the ageing pathway, allowing walnut to complete the transition from nutrient growth to reproductive growth more quickly and realize early fruiting to increase walnut yield, laying the groundwork for the study of the molecular mechanism of walnut's early fruiting trait.

Diversification of FT-like genes in the PEBP family contributes to the variation of flowering traits in Sapindaceae species

Many species of Sapindaceae, such as lychee, longan, and rambutan, provide nutritious and delicious fruit. Understanding the molecular genetic mechanisms that underlie the regulation of flowering is essential for securing flower and fruit productivity. Most endogenous and exogenous flowering cues are integrated into the florigen encoded by FLOWERING LOCUS T. However, the regulatory mechanisms of flowering remain poorly understood in Sapindaceae. Here, we identified 60 phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein-coding genes from six Sapindaceae plants. Gene duplication events led to the emergence of two or more paralogs of the FT gene that have evolved antagonistic functions in Sapindaceae. Among them, the FT1-like genes are functionally conserved and promote flowering, while the FT2-like genes likely serve as repressors that delay flowering. Importantly, we show here that the natural variation at nucleotide position − 1437 of the lychee FT1 promoter determined the binding affinity of the SVP protein (LcSVP9), which was a negative regulator of flowering, resulting in the differential expression of LcFT1, which in turn affected flowering time in lychee. This finding provides a potential molecular marker for breeding lychee. Taken together, our results reveal some crucial aspects of FT gene family genetics that underlie the regulation of flowering in Sapindaceae.

AtSRT1 regulates flowering by regulating flowering integrators and energy signals in Arabidopsis

Epigenetic modifications, such as histone alterations, play crucial roles in regulating the flowering process in Arabidopsis, a typical long-day model plant. Histone modifications are notably involved in the intricate regulation of FLC, a key inhibitor of flowering. Although sirtuin-like protein and NAD+-dependent deacetylases play an important role in regulating energy metabolism, plant stress responses, and hormonal signal transduction, the mechanisms underlying their developmental transitions remain unclear. Thus, this study aimed to reveal how Arabidopsis NAD + -dependent deacetylase AtSRT1 affects flowering by regulating the expression of flowering integrators. Genetic and molecular evidence demonstrated that AtSRT1 mediates histone deacetylation by directly binding near the transcriptional start sites (TSS) of the flowering integrator genes FT and SOC1 and negatively regulating their expression by modulating the expression of the downstream gene LFY to inhibit flowering. Additionally, AtSRT1 directly down-regulates the expression of TOR, a glucose-driven central hub of energy signaling, which controls cell metabolism and growth in response to nutritional and environmental factors. This down-regulation occurs through binding near the TSS of TOR, facilitating the addition of H3K27me3 marks on FLC via the TOR-FIE-PRC2 pathway, further repressing flowering. These results uncover a multi-pathway regulatory network involving deacetylase AtSRT1 during the flowering process, highlighting its interaction with TOR as a hub for the coordinated regulation of energy metabolism and flowering initiation. These findings significantly enhance understanding of the complexity of histone modifications in the regulation of flowering.

Brassica rapa CURLY LEAF is a major H3K27 methyltransferase regulating flowering time

Main conclusionIn Brassica rapa, the epigenetic modifier BraA.CLF orchestrates flowering by modulating H3K27me3 levels at the floral integrator genes FT, SOC1, and SEP3, thereby influencing their expression.CURLY LEAF (CLF) is the catalytic subunit of the plant Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 that mediates the trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3), an epigenetic modification that leads to gene silencing. While the function of CURLY LEAF (CLF) has been extensively studied in Arabidopsis thaliana, its role in Brassica crops is barely known. In this study, we focused on the Brassica rapa homolog of CLF and found that the loss-of-function mutant braA.clf-1 exhibits an accelerated flowering together with pleiotropic phenotypic alterations compared to wild-type plants. In addition, we carried out transcriptomic and H3K27me3 genome-wide analyses to identify the genes regulated by BraA.CLF. Interestingly, we observed that several floral regulatory genes, including the B. rapa homologs of FT, SOC1 and SEP3, show reduced H3K27me3 levels and increased transcript levels compared to wild-type plants, suggesting that they are direct targets of BraA.CLF and key players in regulating flowering time in this crop. In addition, the results obtained will enhance our understanding of the epigenetic mechanisms regulating key developmental traits and will aid to increase crop yield by engineering new Brassica varieties with different flowering time requirements.

Novel alleles of MFT‐A and MFT‐B1 appear to impact wheat preharvest sprouting in Triticum aestivum and Triticum turgidum ssp. durum

AbstractBackground and ObjectivesPreharvest sprouting (PHS) is the premature germination of seeds, which is often caused by late‐season rains after seeds reach physiological maturity. PHS negatively impacts grain yield and end‐use quality. Previous studies in spring bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) and durum wheat (Triticum turgidum) have identified that some mutations in the mother of FT and TFL1 gene (MFT) coding sequence decrease seed dormancy and increase wheat PHS.FindingsHere, we report two novel alleles for the MFT‐A and two novel alleles for the MFT‐B1 homologs in spring bread wheat and durum wheat.ConclusionsA haplotype analysis suggests that TaMFT‐3A1b (OQ729929), TaMFT‐3B1b (OQ729932) and TdMFT‐3B1b (OQ729937) increase PHS susceptibility. It is expected that functional copies of MFT promote seed dormancy. Variant analysis of the novel MFT‐A and MFT‐B1 alleles in both spring and durum wheat suggest impairment of protein function, therefore a negative impact on seed dormancy.Significance and Novelty: Previously unassessed durum wheat varieties were examined for PHS susceptibility. The information in this study can serve as a resource for spring and durum wheat breeders to make selections for alleles of MFT that impact susceptibility to PHS.

Two FT genes synergistically regulate the reproductive transition of loquat

Unlike annual flowering plants that exhibit a single reproductive cycle encompassing vegetative growth, flowering, and senescence within a single year, perennial woody trees undergo a transition between vegetative and reproductive growth every year after a long juvenile phase. Most woody fruit trees bloom when it turns warm in spring, and the fruit ripens in summer or autumn. However, as a member of the Maloideae subfamily, the loquat tree blooms in the cold autumn and winter, and the fruit matures in the spring. To explore the regulatory mechanism of loquat flowering, we characterized two FLOWERING LOCUS T homologous genes in loquat, EjFT1 and EjFT2. qRT-PCR results revealed that EjFT1 and EjFT2 exhibited nearly opposite expression patterns in various tissues. EjFT1 was mainly expressed in young tissues; EjFT2 was mainly expressed in mature leaves, open flowers, and fruits. EjFT2 exhibited an obvious circadian rhythm and was regulated by EjCO. After the trees were exposed to short-day conditions or sprayed with exogenous GA3, the expression of EjFT2 was strongly inhibited, and the loquat tree did not produce floral buds. Furthermore, the yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, and Dual-luciferase assay experiments revealed that both EjFT1 and EjFT2 interacted with EjFD, with the EjFT2-EjFD protein complex enhancing the activity of EjAP1-1 and EjAP1-2 promoters, while EjFT1-EjFD inhibited the activity of the EjAP1-1 promoter. Protein structural analysis of EjFT1 and EjFT2 suggested that differences in amino acid residues at Val123/Leu123, Ser157/Ala157, and Val158/Ala158 may be the reason for their functional differences. Our results showed that EjFT1 and EjFT2 may cooperatively regulate the floral bud differentiation of loquat by competitively binding with EjFD. EjFT2 regulates the onset of loquat floral bud differentiation by responding to photoperiod and gibberellin signals, while EjFT1 is involved in the vegetative growth of loquat. These findings provide important clues for the investigation of the regulatory mechanism of loquat flowering and advance the exploration into the multiple roles of FT homologous genes in regulating the reproductive transformation and vegetative growth of flowering plants.

Structured 3′ UTRs destabilize mRNAs in plants

BackgroundRNA secondary structure (RSS) can influence the regulation of transcription, RNA processing, and protein synthesis, among other processes. 3′ untranslated regions (3′ UTRs) of mRNA also hold the key for many aspects of gene regulation. However, there are often contradictory results regarding the roles of RSS in 3′ UTRs in gene expression in different organisms and/or contexts.ResultsHere, we incidentally observe that the primary substrate of miR159a (pri-miR159a), when embedded in a 3′ UTR, could promote mRNA accumulation. The enhanced expression is attributed to the earlier polyadenylation of the transcript within the hybrid pri-miR159a-3′ UTR and, resultantly, a poorly structured 3′ UTR. RNA decay assays indicate that poorly structured 3′ UTRs could promote mRNA stability, whereas highly structured 3′ UTRs destabilize mRNA in vivo. Genome-wide DMS-MaPseq also reveals the prevailing inverse relationship between 3′ UTRs’ RSS and transcript accumulation in the transcriptomes of Arabidopsis, rice, and even human. Mechanistically, transcripts with highly structured 3′ UTRs are preferentially degraded by 3′–5′ exoribonuclease SOV and 5′–3′ exoribonuclease XRN4, leading to decreased expression in Arabidopsis. Finally, we engineer different structured 3′ UTRs to an endogenous FT gene and alter the FT-regulated flowering time in Arabidopsis.ConclusionsWe conclude that highly structured 3′ UTRs typically cause reduced accumulation of the harbored transcripts in Arabidopsis. This pattern extends to rice and even mammals. Furthermore, our study provides a new strategy of engineering the 3′ UTRs’ RSS to modify plant traits in agricultural production and mRNA stability in biotechnology.

Evolution and Dynamic Transcriptome of Key Genes of Photoperiodic Flowering Pathway in Water Spinach (Ipomoea aquatica).

The photoperiod is a major environmental factor in flowering control. Water spinach flowering under the inductive short-day condition decreases the yield of vegetative tissues and the eating quality. To obtain an insight into the molecular mechanism of the photoperiod-dependent regulation of the flowering time in water spinach, we performed transcriptome sequencing on water spinach under long- and short-day conditions with eight time points. Our results indicated that there were 6615 circadian-rhythm-related genes under the long-day condition and 8691 under the short-day condition. The three key circadian-rhythm genes, IaCCA1, IaLHY, and IaTOC1, still maintained single copies and similar IaCCA1, IaLHY, and IaTOC1 feedback expression patterns, indicating the conservation of reverse feedback. In the photoperiod pathway, highly conserved GI genes were amplified into two copies (IaGI1 and IaGI2) in water spinach. The significant difference in the expression of the two genes indicates functional diversity. Although the photoperiod core gene FT was duplicated to three copies in water spinach, only IaFT1 was highly expressed and strongly responsive to the photoperiod and circadian rhythms, and the almost complete inhibition of IaFT1 in water spinach may be the reason why water spinach does not bloom, no matter how long it lasts under the long-day condition. Differing from other species (I. nil, I. triloba, I. trifida) of the Ipomoea genus that have three CO members, water spinach lacks one of them, and the other two CO genes (IaCO1 and IaCO2) encode only one CCT domain. In addition, through weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA), some transcription factors closely related to the photoperiod pathway were obtained. This work provides valuable data for further in-depth analyses of the molecular regulation of the flowering time in water spinach and the Ipomoea genus.

Abiotic and biotic factors regulate the timing of floral induction: a review

AbstractTime of flowering is an important phenomenon which ensures reproductive success and better adaptability to various environmental conditions. There are a few proteins that function as master regulators of flowering. The expression of these proteins highly depends on many extrinsic and intrinsic factors along with several biotic components. Further, alterations in these factors result in drastic changes in the transition from the vegetative to the reproductive phase that ultimately results in yield loss. Different abiotic stresses, such as drought, salinity, cold, heat, nutrient scarcity, sugar availability and exogenous chemicals, collectively affect the whole ambit of the floral induction process. Nevertheless, biotic stresses like bacterial (Pseudomonas syringae) and fungal (Fusarium oxysporum) infections promote the expression of the FT gene, which further accelerates the flowering phenomenon. Soil‐dwelling microorganisms, herbivores, pollinators and a few endophytes are associated with the promotion of flowering. Although plants have adapted several strategies to cope with the stress conditions and manage to maintain their reproductive physiology, it is noteworthy that flowering in plants under stress conditions shows species‐specific response patterns by accelerating or retarding the floral induction. Several transcription factors and some miRNAs were also involved in the regulation of flowering under stress conditions. In this review, we have summarised the different biotic and abiotic stresses that affect the flowering time and also include several strategies that plants adapt to escape the stress condition.

Modeling the Flowering Activation Motif during Vernalization in Legumes: A Case Study of M. trancatula.

In many plant species, flowering is promoted by the cold treatment or vernalization. The mechanism of vernalization-induced flowering has been extensively studied in Arabidopsis but remains largely unknown in legumes. The orthologs of the FLC gene, a major regulator of vernalization response in Arabidopsis, are absent or non-functional in the vernalization-sensitive legume species. Nevertheless, the legume integrator genes FT and SOC1 are involved in the transition of the vernalization signal to meristem identity genes, including PIM (AP1 ortholog). However, the regulatory contribution of these genes to PIM activation in legumes remains elusive. Here, we presented the theoretical and data-driven analyses of a feed-forward regulatory motif that includes a vernalization-responsive FT gene and several SOC1 genes, which independently activate PIM and thereby mediate floral transition. Our theoretical model showed that the multiple regulatory branches in this regulatory motif facilitated the elimination of no-sense signals and amplified useful signals from the upstream regulator. We further developed and analyzed four data-driven models of PIM activation in Medicago trancatula in vernalized and non-vernalized conditions in wild-type and fta1-1 mutants. The model with FTa1 providing both direct activation and indirect activation via three intermediate activators, SOC1a, SOC1b, and SOC1c, resulted in the most relevant PIM dynamics. In this model, the difference between regulatory inputs of SOC1 genes was nonessential. As a result, in the M. trancatula model, the cumulative action of SOC1a, SOC1b, and SOC1c was favored. Overall, in this study, we first presented the in silico analysis of vernalization-induced flowering in legumes. The considered vernalization network motif can be supplemented with additional regulatory branches as new experimental data become available.

Phytohormone biosynthesis and transcriptional analyses provide insight into the main growth stage of male and female cones Pinus koraiensis.

The cone is a crucial component of the whole life cycle of gymnosperm and an organ for sexual reproduction of gymnosperms. In Pinus koraiensis, the quantity and development process of male and female cones directly influence seed production, which in turn influences the tree's economic value. There are, however, due to the lack of genetic information and genomic data, the morphological development and molecular mechanism of female and male cones of P. koraiensis have not been analyzed. Long-term phenological observations were used in this study to document the main process of the growth of both male and female cones. Transcriptome sequencing and endogenous hormone levels at three critical developmental stages were then analyzed to identify the regulatory networks that control these stages of cones development. The most significant plant hormones influencing male and female cones growth were discovered to be gibberellin and brassinosteroids, according to measurements of endogenous hormone content. Additionally, transcriptome sequencing allowed the identification of 71,097 and 31,195 DEGs in male and female cones. The synthesis and control of plant hormones during cones growth were discovered via enrichment analysis of key enrichment pathways. FT and other flowering-related genes were discovered in the coexpression network of flower growth development, which contributed to the growth development of male and female cones of P. koraiensis. The findings of this work offer a cutting-edge foundation for understanding reproductive biology and the molecular mechanisms that control the growth development of male and female cones in P. koraiensis.

Ring Stripping, Ring Cutting, and Growth Regulators Promote Phase Change and Early Flowering in Pear Seedlings.

Hybrid breeding is the most important means of selecting pear (Pyrus) varieties, but a long juvenile period severely restricts the selection of new varieties. In this study, we used 'Yuluxiang' × 'Akituki' 4-year-old seedling trees to study the effects of plant growth regulators, ring stripping, and ring cutting on the promotion of phase change and flowering to assist in shortening the breeding cycle. A single application of 100 mg/kg 6-BA + 1000 mg/kg PP333 was most effective in promoting phase change and flowering. This treatment effectively inhibited the growth and thickening of annual shoots, significantly increased soluble sugar and protein contents in buds, increased the ABA content by 45.41%, decreased the IAA content by 7.35%, increased the expression of the flower-promoting genes FT and LFY by 2273.41% and 1153.71%, respectively, and decreased the expression of the flower-suppressing gene TFL1 by 74.92%. The flowering plant rate increased by 23.34% compared to the control. Both ring stripping and ring cutting were effective in promoting phase change and flowering, significantly increasing the flowering rate, inflorescence number, and the number of flowering plants. For improving the flowering rate, the ring-stripping treatment had the strongest effect and effectively inhibited the growth and thickening of annual shoots, while also significantly increasing the soluble sugar and protein contents in buds, reducing the contents of IAA and GA3 by 8.73% and 50.12%, respectively, increasing the expression of FT and LFY by 80.01% and 821.14%, respectively, and reducing the expression of the flower-suppressing gene TFL1 by 59.22%. In conclusion, ring stripping, ring cutting, and spraying of 100 mg/kg 6-BA + 1000 mg/kg PP333 were effective in promoting phase change and early flowering in seedling trees.

Molecular Cues for Phenological Events in the Flowering Cycle in Avocado.

Reproductively mature horticultural trees undergo an annual flowering cycle that repeats each year of their reproductive life. This annual flowering cycle is critical for horticultural tree productivity. However, the molecular events underlying the regulation of flowering in tropical tree crops such as avocado are not fully understood or documented. In this study, we investigated the potential molecular cues regulating the yearly flowering cycle in avocado for two consecutive crop cycles. Homologues of flowering-related genes were identified and assessed for their expression profiles in various tissues throughout the year. Avocado homologues of known floral genes FT, AP1, LFY, FUL, SPL9, CO and SEP2/AGL4 were upregulated at the typical time of floral induction for avocado trees growing in Queensland, Australia. We suggest these are potential candidate markers for floral initiation in these crops. In addition, DAM and DRM1, which are associated with endodormancy, were downregulated at the time of floral bud break. In this study, a positive correlation between CO activation and FT in avocado leaves to regulate flowering was not seen. Furthermore, the SOC1-SPL4 model described in annual plants appears to be conserved in avocado. Lastly, no correlation of juvenility-related miRNAs miR156, miR172 with any phenological event was observed.

Synchronization of Arabidopsis flowering time and vegetative growth stage via FT overexpression can reveal inherent heterosis due to heterozygosity in intraspecific hybrids.

Intraspecific hybrids of Arabidopsis sometimes display heterosis. However, allelic variation of flowering repressor genes causes late flowering in F1, which might distort the potential heterosis effect due to prolonged vegetative growth. Here, overexpression of flowering gene FT synchronized flowering and eliminated growth differentials between parental and F1. These findings indicate the possibility of quantitatively demonstrating the inherent heterosis caused by heterozygosity.

SnRNA-seq and mRNA hybridization indicate key bud events and LcFT1 and LcTFL1-2 mRNA transportability during floral transition in litchi.

In flowering plants, floral induction signals intersect at the shoot apex to modulate meristem determinacy and growth form. Herein, we reported a snRNA-seq analysis of litchi apical buds at different developmental stages. A total of 41,641 nuclei expressing 21,402 genes were analyzed, revealing 35 cell clusters corresponding to 12 broad populations. We signature genes associated with floral transition and propose a model that profile the key events associated with litchi floral meristem identity by analyzing 567 identified floral meristem cells at single cell resolution. Interestingly, snRNA-seq data indicated that all putative FT and TFL1 genes were not expressed in bud nuclei, but significant expressions of them were detected in bud samples using RT-PCR. Based on the expression patterns and gene silencing results, we highlight the critical role of LcTFL1-2 in inhibiting flowering and propose that LcFT1/LcTFL1-2 expression ratio may determine the success flower transition. And the transport of LcFT1 and LcTFL1-2 mRNA from the leaf to the shoot apical meristem was proposed based on in-situ and dot blot hybridization results. These findings allowed for a more comprehensive understanding of the molecular events that occur during the litchi floral transition, as well as the identification of new regulators.

Effects of Vernalization on Off–Season Flowering and Gene Expression in Sub-Tropical Strawberry cv. Pharachatan 80

Off-season strawberry production may diversify the yield, thereby increasing costs, but the environmental conditions are a limiting factor. This experiment aimed to study the effects of vernalization on off-season flowering and gene expression in sub-tropical strawberry cv. Pharachatan 80. The factorial (2 × 2) + 1 in a completely randomized design was used in this study. Factor A was the vernalization temperatures: 2 °C and 4 °C. Factor B was the vernalization periods: 1 week and 2 weeks, compared with non-vernalization (control). The expression profile of genes was determined after vernalization treatments. The results revealed an interaction between the two factors on the number of days it took the plants to bloom, the percentage of flowering, the number of inflorescences, the number of flowers per inflorescence and the number of flowers per plant, whereas the number of first flower bloom days, inflorescence length and flower size were not affected by the interaction between the two factors. Strawberry plants vernalized for 1 and 2 weeks at 2 °C showed earlier flowering (21.4 and 23.1 days, respectively) than did those vernalized at 4 °C (24.9 and 25.7 days, respectively). On the other hand, non-vernalized strawberry plants took longer to bloom, at 62.2 days. Strawberry plants vernalized at 2 °C for 2 weeks had the highest percentage of flowering, number of inflorescences, number of flowers per inflorescence and number of flowers per plant. The analysis on gene expression showed that VRN5, SOC1 and FT genes were upregulated after vernalization at 2 °C for 2 weeks, whereas gene expression of the control treatment was not detected. This study demonstrates that vernalization treatment could induce off-season flowering in sub-tropical strawberry cv. Pharachatan 80 by activating flowering genes.

Comparative transcriptomics in alternate bearing cultivar Dashehari reveals the genetic model of flowering in mango.

Flowering is a complex developmental process, with physiological and morphological phases influenced by a variety of external and internal factors. Interestingly, many mango cultivars tend to bear fruit biennially because of irregular flowering, and this has a negative impact on mango flowering and the subsequent yield, resulting in significant economic losses. In this article, transcriptome analysis was carried out on four tissues of mango cv. Dashehari (bearing tree leaf, shoot apex, inflorescence, and non-bearing tree leaf). De novo transcriptome assembly of RNA-seq reads of Dashehari using the Trinity pipeline generated 67,915 transcripts, with 25,776 genes identified. 85 flowering genes, represented by 179 transcripts, were differentially expressed in bearing vs. non-bearing leaf tissues. Gene set enrichment analysis of flowering genes identified significant upregulation of flowering related genes in inflorescence tissues compared to bearing leaf tissues. The flowering genes FT, CO, GI, ELF 4, FLD, FCA, AP1, LHY, and SCO1 were upregulated in the bearing leaf tissues. Pathway analysis of DEGs showed significant upregulation of phenylpropanoid and sucrose and starch pathways in non-bearing leaf tissue compared with bearing leaf tissue. The comparative transcriptome analysis performed in this study significantly increases the understanding of the molecular mechanisms driving the flowering process as well as alternative bearing in mango.

Bulb development in garlic – a review

ABSTRACT Many factors including cold conditioning, temperature, photoperiod, plant population, clove weight, soil nutrients, irrigation, plant growth regulators, and genetic responses influence bulb development in garlic. Garlic produces poor bulbs in warm and short-day conditions but cool and long-days induce flowering. Bulbs exposed before planting from 0° to 10°C for 8 weeks accelerate growth as the low temperatures modify the hormonal balance. Large cloves (>2–4 g) yield heavier bulbs than small (1–2 g) cloves. Plant population has an impact on bulb size: the higher the plant population, the smaller the bulb size. Garlic is sensitive to moisture stress especially during bulb initiation and development. Depending upon cultivar, soil type, and fertility status, NPK fertilisation for enhancement of bulb yield varies from 60–200, 20–75, and 40–166 kg ha−1, respectively. Low-temperature pre-treatment (4°C) increases salicylic acid (SA) concentration in the leaf sheath and enhances bulbing. Injecting garlic plants with gibberellin (GA3) solution increases clove number per bulb. Like onion, flowering and bulb formation in garlic are controlled by different (Flowering Locus T) FT genes. Two antagonistic FT-like genes regulate bulb formation. AsFT1 enhances bulb formation, while AsFT4 prevents AsFT1 up-regulation and inhibits bulbing.