Generation Advanced High Strength Steels Research Articles

Advanced microstructural characterization in high-strength steels via machine learning-enhanced high-speed nanoindentation and EBSD mapping

This research investigates the nanoscopic features of Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) through a bottom-up approach employing high-speed nanoindentation mapping (HSNM) to elucidate structure-property relationships. The influence of grain boundaries on nanomechanical properties was documented, highlighting the challenge of SEM-EBSD analysis in differentiating phases with identical crystal structures (BCC, FCC, etc.). Integrating SEM-EBSD with HSNM in the same region of interest is essential for detailed insights into phase/microstructure distribution and accurate grain boundary identification. A modular four-step analysis protocol, designed and validated on ferritic-bainitic TRIP steels (TBF), leverages machine learning-enhanced HSNM for significant advancements in AHSS design. The initial phase involves the application of the expectation-maximization algorithm for probability distribution fitting of HSNM data, deriving primary mechanical phase statistics. This exclusively facilitates the correlation of elastic modulus and hardness for each phase/microstructure using nanoindentation data. Further refinement of phase/microstructure to mechanical property correlations was achieved through a supervised machine learning approach, ensuring precise association between EBSD and nanoindentation data. This includes detailed image analysis and clustering of nanoindentation data, enhancing the precision in phase recognition. This methodology addresses the critical challenges in developing 3rd Generation AHSS, aiming to fill the gap in accurately identifying and quantifying phases such as martensite, austenite, bainite, and ferrite, thereby reducing classification and measurement uncertainties. The approach contributes to the fundamental understanding of AHSS microstructures and provides a scalable framework for the comprehensive characterization of structural materials.

Silicon effect on Retardation of Fe-Zn Alloying Behavior: Towards an Explanation of Liquid Zinc Embrittlement Susceptibility of Third Generation Advanced High Strength Steels

Silicon (Si) aggravates liquid metal embrittlement (LME) susceptibility of Zn-coated advanced high strength steels (AHSS) by inhibiting intermetallic formation between liquid Zn and the AHSS substrate at elevated temperatures. This study performed detailed microstructural and elemental characterization of an LME-susceptible Si-bearing AHSS to reveal the fundamental mechanism by which Si inhibits Fe-Zn intermetallic reactions. Notably, the interaction between Si-alloyed AHSS and liquid Zn at elevated temperatures results in pronounced Si enrichment in a thin region of the substrate in contact with the liquid. This Si enrichment behavior is at the core of the retarded Fe-Zn reactions, and is explained from a fundamental standpoint by analyses of the phase equilibria in the Fe-Zn-Si ternary system and diffusion kinetics using DICTRA®. Specifically, the liquid dissolves the surface layers of the AHSS substrate upon initial contact at elevated temperatures. The liquid phase, however, has no appreciable solubility for Si; hence, almost all of the Si atoms from the dissolved substrate layers are “back diffused” into the substrate leading to Si enrichment. The Si-enrichment of the substrate reduces the thermodynamic driving force for nucleating intermetallic phases at the steel/coating interface, making it difficult to form a “protective” interfacial layer barrier between the liquid and the substrate. Further, Si enrichment results in an increase in the chemical potential of Zn and reduction in the chemical potential of Fe in the substrate; both these factors slow the kinetics of substrate dissolution and Fe-Zn alloying, leading to an increased liquid fraction in the coating available to activate LME.

Effect of Si on the deformation behavior of retained austenite and annealed martensite in medium Mn steels

The present study systematically investigated the effect of Si additions from 0 to 4 wt % on the deformation mechanism of a Fe-0.2C-6.8Mn (wt. %) medium Mn steel. The duplex microstructure consisting of film-like retained austenite (RA) and lath-shaped annealed martensite (AM) was produced for different Si alloyed steels by annealing treatments. They have similar volume fraction of RA. The effect of Si content on the dynamic strain aging (DSA) of RA and the serration type of tensile curves, as well as the fine structure evolution within AM during deformation was studied in detail. For the different Si alloyed steels, their tensile curves all exhibit flow serrations, accompanied with the propagation of the Portevine-Le Châtelier (PLC) band caused by DSA in RA. The serration type was sensitive to Si content. For the high Si steel, only type B serrations appear. This is attributed to the high Si content in RA, promoting aged dislocations by C atoms due to the repulsive interaction between C and Si atoms. For the low Si and Si free steels, type A serrations occur after type B serrations disappear at a certain strain. The mechanical stability and Mn/Si contents of RA play an important role in the PLC band propagation. The Si content has also an important effect on the evolution of dislocation configuration within AM during deformation. In the low and Si free steels, the dislocation multiplication and tangles, as well as the formation of dislocation walls, dividing up the laths appear in the AM. While in the high Si steel, it is found that the dislocation cells appear within the AM due to Si addition promoting the formation of screw dislocations by neutron diffraction technique, and the cross slip of screw dislocations as a necessary mechanism for dislocation cell formation. The formation of dislocation configuration with low energy is believed to be another essential factor improving the mechanical properties, besides the transformation-induced plasticity effect. This work paves a new pathway towards tailoring dislocation configuration for designing a new generation advanced high-strength steel.

Unraveling the impact of the substitution of Si by Al on liquid metal embrittlement behavior of 3rd generation AHSS

This study addresses one of the most crucial ongoing discussions concerning the mitigation of Zinc-induced Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME) in third-generation Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS). The role of Silicon (Si) and Aluminum (Al), both common alloying elements in AHSS, in triggering LME-induced cracking is thoroughly investigated. Two chemical compositions, 0.2C–3Mn-0.8Si and 0.2C–3Mn–1Al, featuring martensitic microstructures, were selected. Hot tensile tests were conducted in the temperature range of 600–900 °C to simulate the thermomechanical cycle during spot welding.This resulted in a significant reduction in ductility for both Si and Al-alloyed steels in the coated samples compared to the uncoated ones. The loss of ductility was notably more pronounced in Si-alloyed steel than in Al-alloyed steel. These findings were also evident in a specialized LME-triggering spot-welding test, suggesting that Si, as an alloy element in steel, leads to higher LME susceptibility compared to Al. This can be attributed, as indicated by thermodynamic equilibrium calculations and investigations of the Zn–Fe layer, to an increased destabilization and retardation of the protective intermetallic Zn–Fe phases by Si. The insolubility of Si in intermetallic phases and liquid Zn is considered a thermodynamic constraint.In contrast, the theoretically possible full solubility of 1% Al in intermetallic phases as well as in liquid Zn was experimentally demonstrated and supported by thermodynamic simulation. Furthermore, Al, by increasing the Ac3 temperature, results in lower amounts of austenite in the microstructure. It is known that austenite plays a detrimental role in triggering LME. Based on this comprehensive study, it is reasonable to conclude that the formation of intermetallic phases plays a critical role in controlling the contact time between steel and liquid Zn as an embrittling agent, and this is strongly influenced by the Si and Al content of the steel.

Industrial implementation of a next generation advanced high strength steel

This study describes a suitable process for manufacture of a cold rolled and continuous annealed advanced high strength steel with a carbide-free bainitic ferrite or quenching and partitioning microstructure in an existing annealing production line. The effect of variations of the main processing parameters on the phase transformation responses and mechanical properties of potential candidate steels was investigated with particular focus on the effect of the overaging temperatures. The relationship between the microstructure and the tensile properties and the hole expansion capacity was scrutinized. In addition to the second phases such as fresh martensite and retained austenite, the non-relaxed strain gradient in the microstructures might be an important parameter to influence the hole expansion capacity.

An experimental methodology to characterize load-based fracture models of third generation advanced high strength steel resistance spot welds

An experimental methodology to characterize load-based fracture models of third generation advanced high strength steel resistance spot welds

Influence of ultrasonic surface rolling on tensile properties of high carbon low alloy quenching-partitioning-tempering steel

The effect of ultrasonic surface rolling process on tensile properties of a novel Fe-0.6C-2.0Al-1.5Mn-0.04 Nb quenching-partitioning-tempering steel was investigated. Optical microscope, scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and transmission electron microscopy were brought out to characterize the microstructure. Compared with quenching-partitioning-tempering steel, the strength and plasticity of the ultrasonic rolling specimen were increased simultaneously, reaching 1329.1 MPa and 23.6%, respectively, and the product of strength and elongation reached the range of the third generation Advanced High Strength Steels. The plasticity improvement mechanism of the USRP1specimen is mainly stemmed from two aspects: First, obvious strain gradients during the tensile process was found in the USRP specimens, which not only avoids the strain localization, but also generates a biaxial stress state. The geometrically necessary dislocations induced by the strain gradient and the dislocations induced by the biaxial stress state promoted extra work hardening, thus ensuring high plasticity of the material. Second, there was a moderate content and small size of twinned martensite in the USRP1 specimen. The improvement in yield strength of the USRP specimens primarily results from grain refinement strengthening, dislocation strengthening, phase transformation strengthening, and back stress strengthening. Among them, phase transformation strengthening contributed the most.

Numerical modeling of liquid metal embrittlement initiation during resistance spot welding of third generation advanced high strength steel – Effect of welding schedule and electrode alignment

Third generation (GEN3) advanced high-strength steels are increasingly used to reduce vehicle body structure weight for improved fuel economy. Zinc-induced liquid metal embrittlement (LME) has become a prevalent challenge when these steels are welded by resistance spot welding (RSW). In the literature, various numerical models have been developed to study LME during RSW of GEN3 steels. Those models tend to have a limited utility in predicting how various factors such as RSW parameters affect LME cracking. In this study, a novel LME calculation method has been developed by integrating an electro-thermo-mechanical finite element model of RSW process with an LME ratio for crack initiation established from hot tensile testing data. The onset of different types of LME cracking is tracked throughout the weld region over the entire course of RSW including the final cooling stage after electrode retraction. The model is validated using an existing set of literature data that involves different welding schedules, electrode geometries and electrode misalignments. The local temperature and stress conditions during RSW are calculated and used to understand how different welding parameters affect the severity of LME cracking. It is found that electrode misalignment exacerbates crack initiation on outer surfaces of the spot weld due to the tensile stress arisen from the off-centered squeeze force as well as the reduced surface cooling to electrodes. Initiation of cracks between the steel sheets, taking place mainly after electrode retraction, is not significantly affected by the welding schedule and the electrode tip diameter.

Behavior of TRIP-aided medium Mn steels investigated by in situ synchrotron X-ray diffraction experiments and microstructure-based micromechanical modelling

Medium Mn steels belong to a new generation of advanced high-strength steels whose superior mechanical properties are explained by their ultrafine-grained ferrite/austenite/martensite microstructures and a possible transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) related to the stability of retained austenite. The mechanical behaviour of a set of model medium Mn steels is investigated during tensile testing using a combination of high-energy X-ray diffraction (HEXRD) and digital image correlation (DIC) measurements. HEXRD allows for the time-resolved determination of transformation kinetics and in situ stress partitioning among the different constituting phases. DIC provides precise spatiotemporal information on the strain evolution along the gauge length, particularly at the position of the diffracting volume. These experiments served to calibrate an innovative mean field micromechanical model which accounts for the local behaviour of each phase, as well as the strain-induced martensitic transformation (SIMT) of retained austenite. The work-hardening of both austenite and ferrite is modeled using a dislocation-based size-sensitive approach which includes kinematic hardening contributions. The behaviours of fresh and strain-induced martensite are predicted using a genuine model derived from the continuous composite approach. The model for SIMT is based on a thermodynamic assessment of the stability of retained austenite. The overall model is thus sensitive to the size of the microstructure components, their local chemistry, and their respective stability.

Insight into grain boundaries with reduced liquid metal embrittlement susceptibility in a boron-added 3rd generation advanced high strength steel

The addition of boron to the advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) enhances grain boundary cohesion and can play a significant role in intergranular degradation phenomena such as Zn-assisted liquid metal embrittlement (LME). The objective of this study is to reveal a thorough understanding of the effect of B on LME behaviour, where the welding test results indicated substantial improvement even at relatively low B concentration. Here, we adopted the strategy of identifying LME-sensitive grain boundaries, followed by characterizing grain boundary chemistry. EBSD measurements and prior austenite grain (PAG) reconstruction provided strong evidence of intergranular LME crack propagation via PAGBs. Further transmission electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy investigations demonstrated an asymmetric Mn profile along the PAGB in B-free steel. Therefore, we propose that B addition and consequently, lower grain boundary energy appears to prevent Mn segregation. Based on our observation, we conclude that B seems to have the similar desired effect on Zn diffusion along the PAGBs and eventually mitigates Zn-assisted LME.

Flash annealing of a chemically heterogeneous medium Mn steel

Medium Manganese Steels (MMS) are considered among the most promising 3rd generation advanced high strength steels. However, their practical production and application have been constrained by factors such as relatively high Mn content, low yield strength and the occurrence of Lüders banding. In this contribution, flash heating and the concept of chemical heterogeneity were combined to engineer an MMS variant with a reduced Mn content (Fe-0.18C-4.95Mn-0.4Si (wt.%)), nearly doubling the material's yield strength and successfully mitigating the presence of Lüders banding. It is interestingly found that Mn heterogeneity can not only directly stabilize austenite but also contributes to austenite stabilization via promoting carbon partitioning from the Mn-poor austenite into the Mn-enriched austenite. Heating rate is proven to be a key parameter to manipulate chemical heterogeneity, austenite stability and mechanical properties. The present strategy can be potentially applied to other advanced high strength steels.

Solute Enrichment in the Fusion Zone during Resistance Spot Welding of a Third Generation Advanced High Strength Steel

Resistance spot welding is a critical joining technique in automobile assembly. The load carrying properties of spot welds are generally accepted to correlate with weld diameter, which increases with increasing weld current or duration. The formation of a softened layer, or weld halo, surrounding the fusion zone in a spot-welded third generation (Gen3) advanced high strength steel (AHSS) was recently reported in the literature. To optimize weld performance by schedule design, it is necessary to understand the halo formation characteristics and potential impacts. Accordingly, welding of a Gen3 AHSS was performed using weld times between 130 – 1300 ms. Microhardness mapping characterized weld microhardness and the evolution of the halo during welding. Electron probe microanalysis and timeof-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry enabled measurement of solute distributions through the weld halo, while scanning electron microscopy was used for microstructural characterization. The solidified structure was examined using light-optical microscopy, and with the microhardness and compositional data, used to infer the mechanism by which the halo forms during welding. It was found that the halo develops due to solute rejection from a cellular solidification front that advances towards the center of the fusion zone while weld current is applied. Extended weld times increase the size of the weld halo and the solute content of the inner fusion zone. The decrease in weld halo microhardness and the increase in inner fusion zone microhardness is largely explained by the changes in local carbon content associated with halo formation.

Low Temperature Hot Press Forming of a Zinc Coated Third Generation Advanced High Strength Steel

A 7 wt.% Mn steel was designed and was cast and processed to 1.5 mm sheets. The sheets were continuous annealed and coated with a Zn alloy by hot dip galvanizing before subjecting them to hot press forming cycles. The final microstructure was characterized by ultrafine ferrite grains and a high fraction of retained austenite. Excellent combinations of in-service strength-ductility-bendability were achieved for hot forming in the temperature range of 530-675 °C. The use of the low temperature hot forming minimized the liquid metal embrittlement induced cracking with Zn coating during hot forming and spot welding. Various application properties such as oxidation resistance, corrosion resistance, and springback were found at optimum levels for hot forming at 675 °C.

Effects of Substrate Microstructure and Chemical Composition on Liquid Metal Embrittlement in Galvanized 3rd Generation AHSS

Extensive efforts have been undertaken worldwide to develop new high strength steels with substantial fractions of retained austenite, for lightweight automobile manufacturing and other applications requiring improved combinations of strength and formability. These “3rd Generation” Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) are being implemented, and spot-welding has been found to present new challenges for these steels when Zn-based corrosion resistant coatings are involved, wherein zinc liquid metal embrittlement (LME) can occur. Some recent work is highlighted here that was designed to examine the separate effects of prior microstructure and alloy composition on LME sensitivity. LME behavior was assessed by comparing hot-ductility of steels with and without a Zn coating tested under conditions simulating spot-weld thermal cycles. Effects of prior microstructure on LME susceptibility were assessed with a single AHSS alloy composition, using annealing modifications to produce martensitic, Q&P, TBF and dual-phase substrates. The dual-phase steel exhibited less sensitivity to LME, perhaps because the Zn penetration and cracking are unable to follow (prior) austenite boundaries in this microstructure. With respect to alloy composition, carbon and manganese variations did not lead to noticeable effects on LME sensitivity, while silicon clearly leads to increased LME sensitivity. Addition of 1.3 wt. pct. aluminum to a 0.5 wt. pct silicon-containing AHSS steel further increased LME sensitivity at some test temperatures. The effects of alloying are interpreted in terms of the propensity to form an intermetallic reaction layer that consumes liquid and physically separates the substrate and liquid zinc.

Heterogeneous microstructure design by pre-manipulating ferrite recrystallization in a cold rolled medium Mn steel

The medium Mn steel (MMS), which is regarded as the most representative candidate of the third generation advanced high strength steels, has received widely attention during the last several decades with respect to the exceptional advantage of low cost and excellent strength-ductility properties. In this study, a microstructural strategy of developing heterogeneous microstructures in a cold rolled MMS is presented. By pre-manipulating occurrence of the ferrite recrystallization, both the lamellar-shaped and granular-shaped ultra-fine retained austenite can be obtained after the two-step intercritical annealing process. Various amounts of recrystallized ferrite and difform martensite can be obtained by adjusting the pre-annealing temperature, which can effectively contribute to producing the two types of heterogeneous retained austenite, i.e., lamellar and granular in the following annealing process. The heterogeneous-structured retained austenite enables an excellent strength–ductility combination and reduced Lüders strain in the cold-rolled MMS.

In situ measurement of austenite grain growth and recrystallization using laser ultrasonics

The development of next generation process models and advanced high-strength steel products for thin slab casting and direct rolling requires quantification of microstructure evolution during thermomechanical processing. Laser ultrasonics is a non-contact in-situ method to record grain growth, recrystallization and phase transformations in metals and alloys. Here, we will present an improved experimental design that facilitates a continuous microstructure measurement through the various stages of simulated hot rolling from reheating to runout table cooling using a Gleeble thermomechanical simulator equipped with a laser ultrasonics for metallurgy (LUMet) system. Austenite grain growth and static recrystallization after hot deformation are quantified based on attenuation of the ultrasound waves whereas austenite decomposition can be recorded with the changes in ultrasound velocity during the phase transformation. Further, the LUMet results for a microalloyed low carbon steel are validated with conventional techniques including optical and electron microscopy as well as double-hit tests. These experimental studies demonstrate the capabilities of laser ultrasonics in the identification of both normal and abnormal grain growth, non-recrystallization temperature, recrystallization, and austenite decomposition kinetics in a single test for a given processing path, as well as its potential for accelerated optimization of process control under industrial rolling conditions.

Characterization and Prediction of Plane Strain Bendability in Advanced High-Strength Steels

The rapid development of new classes of automotive steels such as the 3rd generation of advanced high-strength steels has created the need for the efficient characterization of their mechanical properties in loading scenarios other than uniaxial tension. The VDA 238-100 tight radius bend test has gained widespread acceptance in recent years for characterizing performance in plane strain bending, but there is uncertainty surrounding the use of the bend angle and its interrelation with the test parameters. The objective of the present study is to investigate the intertwined effects of the sheet thickness, bend radius, and tensile properties upon the bendability of seven advanced high-strength steels in different thicknesses for a total of 83 conditions. Practical correlations are developed to predict the bend angle and plane strain fracture strain as functions of the bending conditions and tensile mechanical properties. An extensive dataset comprising 26 additional advanced high-strength steel test cases was compiled from the literature to evaluate the proposed correlation for the plane strain fracture strain.

A multi-response optimization approach to mechanical properties improvement of dissimilar resistance spot welding joints

Purpose This study aims to investigate the effects of process input parameters (welding current, welding time, electrode pressure and holding time) on the output responses (nugget diameter, peak load and indentation) that control the mechanical properties and quality of the joints in dissimilar resistance spot welding (RSW) for the third generation of advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) quenching and partitioning (Q&P980) and (SPFC780Y) high-strength steel spot welds. Design/methodology/approach Design of experiment approach with two level factors and center points was adopted. Destructive peel and shear tensile strengths were used to measure the responses. The significant factors were determined using analysis of variance implemented by Minitab 18 software. Finally, multiresponse optimization was carried out using the desirability function analysis method. Findings Holding time was the most significant factor influencing nugget diameter, whereas welding current had the greatest impact on peak load and indentation. Multiresponse optimization revealed that the optimal settings were a welding current of 12.5 KA, welding time of 18 cycles, electrode pressure of 420 Kgf and holding time of 10 cycles. These settings produced a nugget diameter of 8.0 mm, a peak load of 35.15 KN and an indentation of 22.5%, with a composite desirability function of 0.764. Originality/value This study provides an effective approach for multiple response optimization to the mechanical behavior of RSW joints, even though there have been few studies on the third generation of AHSS joints and none on the dissimilar joints of the materials used in this study.

Mitigating the influence of industrially relevant disturbances on LME severity of dissimilar resistance spot welded advanced high-strength steels

The third generation of advanced high-strength steels (3G-AHSS) has been developed to provide high strength and high ductility, which attract automakers. To protect these materials from corrosion during service, these materials are typically coated with zinc. During resistance spot welding (RSW), the zinc coating can melt, allowing it to penetrate into the grain boundaries (GBs), and lead to liquid metal embrittlement (LME) phenomena. Concerns regarding LME susceptibility have impacted the industrial application of 3G-AHSS; therefore, its mitigation has become a top focus for automakers. Several possible strategies for lowering LME severity by altering welding parameters have been proposed to mitigate LME in similar spot weld joints. However, these strategies were not tested on a dissimilar spot weld joint. Therefore, in this work, 1.4 mm gauge thickness galvanized (GI-coated) 3G-980 AHSS was joined with 0.6 mm thick Interstitial Free (IF) steel. In this work, current pulsation and ultra-short hold time were proposed to minimize LME severity. The robustness of the developed welding schedule was then tested on welds made with industrial disturbance factors such as pre-strained sheets (between 0 to 80% of 3G-980 material yield strength) and electrode misalignment (between 0° to 10° misalignment) compared to baseline parameters. In severe circumstances of disturbance factors, the resulting optimized welding schedule decreased LME cracking and showed improved resistance to LME, lowering LME severity by 41% for the extreme pre-strain condition and 27% for the extreme misalignment angle.

Resistance spot weldability of Fe66Cr16.5Ni14.1Si3.4 advanced high strength steel using D-optimal design of experiment method

Using advanced high-strength steels in automobiles has created a new challenge to achieve acceptable welds. The present study evaluates the weldability of the new generation of advanced high-strength steels in the FeCrNiSi alloy group. Hence, utilizing the design of experiment (DOE), it was obtained how the parameters namely the welding current, welding time, and electrode force affect the final properties. Additionally, the acceptable range of parameters for achieving an acceptable weld nugget in terms of size and strength was obtained. Accordingly, the nugget size effects on mechanical properties, namely energy absorption capability, failure mode in tensile-shear test, and microhardness were evaluated. The parameters were statistically significant and showed a high degree of reliability (95%) in terms of nugget size. The range of acceptable parameters for 1 mm thick steel and type A electrode was 9–21 cycles for welding time, whereas for welding current were 4–7 KA, 5 to 6.5 KA, and 5.7 to 6.5 KA at 2, 3, and 4 KN electrode force, respectively. Due to the grain growth in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), the HAZ softening was observed in the microhardness profile. All samples demonstrated desired fracture mode due to the HAZ softening, the ductile austenitic microstructure, the absence of brittle phases, and easy nugget rotation in the tensile-shear test. By increasing the nugget diameter from 3 to 5.1 mm, the peak load and the energy absorption of the spot welds exceeded from 5.4 KN to 6.5 KN and from 10 to 31 J, respectively.