General Procrastination Scale Research Articles

Time perspective, control, and affect mediate the relation between regulatory mode and procrastination.

This study examines the roles of time perspective, affect, and locus of control in mediating the relationship between regulatory mode and procrastination. Participants filled out the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule Scale, Multidimensional Locus of Control Inventory, Locomotion and Assessment Scale, and Lay’s General Procrastination scale. Results showed that procrastination was negatively related to locomotion orientation but positively associated with assessment orientation. The relations between regulatory mode and procrastination were mediated by negative affective state, internal sense of control, and negative past and future time perspectives. These findings suggest not only a behavioral link between regulatory mode and procrastination but also affective and cognitive differences in locomotion and assessment orientations that may account for such linkage. The present results also provide empirical support for the theory of locomotion-temporality interface (Kruglanski, Pierro, & Higgins, 2016).

Achievement motivation and positive mental health among college students: mediating role of procrastination

Objective To explore the relationship between achievement motivation, procrastination and positive mental health of college students. Methods A total of 348 students completed a survey that included Achievement Motivation Scale (AMS), General Procrastination Scale (GPS) and Mental Health Continuum Short Form (MHC-SF). Results (1) The average scores of achievement motivation, procrastination and positive mental health in college students were 3.61±12.05, 56.48±10.62 and 3.46±0.82 respectively.The proportion of flourishing student was accounted for 53.16%, 44.83% for the moderately mentally healthy and 2.01% for the languishing.(2) College students' achievement motivation was positively correlated with positive mental health (r=0.399, P<0.01), achievement motivation was negatively correlated with procrastination (r=-0.388, P<0.01) and procrastination was negatively correlated with positive mental health (r=-0.267, P<0.01). (3) Procrastination had a partial mediating effect between achievement motivation and positive mental health, and the proportion of mediating effect in total effect was 12.75%.In three dimensions of positive mental health, procrastination also had partial mediating effect between achievement motivation and psychological well-being and emotional well-being respectively, the proportion of mediating effect in total effect were 15.71% and 20.63% respectively.But the mediating effect between achievement motivation and social well-being was not significant. Conclusion College students with higher achievement motivation have higher positive mental health, but the procrastination has indirect negative effect between the two variables, which leads to the negative effect of emotional and psychological well-being in the positive mental health condition. Key words: College students; Achievement motivation; Positive mental health; Procrastination

Irrational Delay Revisited: Examining Five Procrastination Scales in a Global Sample.

Scales attempting to measure procrastination focus on different facets of the phenomenon, yet they share a common understanding of procrastination as an unnecessary, unwanted, and disadvantageous delay. The present paper examines in a global sample (N = 4,169) five different procrastination scales – Decisional Procrastination Scale (DPS), Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS), Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS), Adult Inventory of Procrastination Scale (AIP), and General Procrastination Scale (GPS), focusing on factor structures and item functioning using Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Item Response Theory. The results indicated that The PPS (12 items selected from DPS, AIP, and GPS) measures different facets of procrastination even better than the three scales it is based on. An even shorter version of the PPS (5 items focusing on irrational delay), corresponds well to the nine-item IPS. Both scales demonstrate good psychometric properties and appear to be superior measures of core procrastination attributes than alternative procrastination scales.

Current status of procrastination and self-efficacy of undergraduate students and the correlation between them

Objective To investigate the status quo of procrastination and self-efficacy among undergraduate students and analyze the correlation between them. Methods From June 2014 to December 2014, a total of 1986 undergraduate students from five universities of Jiangning college town were selected by convenience sampling method. All students were assessed by the general procrastination scale (GPS) and general self-efficacy scale (GSES) . The single factor analysis was used to analyze the influencing factors of self-efficacy and procrastination, in addition, the Pearson correlation analysis was used to analyze the correlation between self-efficacy and procrastination. Results The GPS score of undergraduate students was (55.73±8.14) . Factors such as gender, specialty, grade, whether the one-child, the educational level of parents, and whether accommodation influenced the procrastination of students (P<0.05) . The GSES score of undergraduate students was (26.18±4.86) . Gender, specialty, grade, whether in the key university, the educational level of parents were related with self-efficacy (P<0.05) . Self-efficacy showed a negative correlation with procrastination (r=-0.166, P<0.05) . Conclusions Procrastination is a common phenomenon among undergraduate students. Undergraduate students should begin their career planning as soon as possible, and learn time management and self-monitoring, so as to reduce their procrastination and improve self-efficacy. Key words: Questionnaires; Undergraduate students; Procrastination; Self-efficacy

Problematic Facebook use and procrastination

In recent years, we can observe the increasing popularity of Facebook. The main aim of our study was to examine whether procrastination is associated with Facebook intrusion and intensity. The participants in the study were 954 Facebook users aged between 18 and 58 years. We used the Facebook Intrusion Questionnaire, the Facebook Intensity Scale, the General Procrastination Scale, and the Decisional Procrastination Scale. Our results indicate that general and decisional procrastination are significant predictors of Facebook intrusion and intensity. Also, females and young participants use Facebook more intensely and are more likely to become addicted to Facebook.

Procrastination, Distress and Life Satisfaction across the Age Range - A German Representative Community Study.

Addressing the lack of population-based data the purpose of this representative study was to assess procrastination and its associations with distress and life satisfaction across the life span. A representative German community sample (1,350 women; 1,177 men) between the ages of 14 and 95 years was examined by the short form of the General Procrastination Scale (GPS-K; 1) and standardized scales of perceived stress, depression, anxiety, fatigue and life satisfaction. As hypothesized, procrastination was highest in the youngest cohort (14–29 years). Only in the youngest and most procrastinating cohort (aged 14 to 29 years), men procrastinated more than women. As we had further hypothesized, procrastination was consistently associated with higher stress, more depression, anxiety, fatigue and reduced satisfaction across life domains, especially regarding work and income. Associations were also found with lack of a partnership and unemployment. Findings are discussed with regard to potential developmental and cohort effects. While procrastination appears to be a pervasive indicator for maladjustment, longitudinal analyses in high-risk samples (e.g. late adolescence, unemployment) are needed to identify means and mechanisms of procrastinating.

A survey on procrastination in medical students and path analysis on its influencing factors

Objective To understand the situation of procrastination and its influencing factors in medical students. Methods The general procrastination scale(GPS), general self-efficacy scale(GSES), achievement motivation scale(AMS), self-esteem scale(SES), self-rating depression scale(SDS) and self-rating anxiety scale(SAS) were applied to 531 medical students, and the influence factors were analyzed with correlation analyses, hierarchical regression and path analysis of SPSS 16.0 and Amos 5.0. Results (1) The scale score of procrastination was between 31-93 and the average score was 55.54±9.68. 96.1% students showed different degree procrastination, with the moderate-severe degree ones accounted for 45.3%. (2)Procrastination was positively correlated to anxiety(r=0.331) and depression(r=0.415), but negatively correlated with self-efficacy(r=-0.247) and self-esteem(r=-0.328). (3)The hierarchical regression revealed that self-efficacy, self-esteem, and depression could significantly predict procrastination, which increased the explained variance 6.1%, 6.1% and 6.3% respectively. (4) Path analysis showed that the self-esteem had direct effect on procrastination (path coefficient 0.12); self-efficacy had indirect effect on procrastination through self-esteem (path coefficient 0.21). Depression had direct effect on procrastination (path coefficient 0.34) and indirect effect to the procrastination through the self-esteem (path coefficient 0.50). All the fitting indices reached statistical standards. Conclusion Procrastination was common in medical students and self-efficacy, self-esteem, depression had direct or indirect effect on it. Key words: Procrastination; Self-efficacy; Self-esteem; Depression; Path Analysis; Medical students

An Exploratory Study on Personality Traits and Procrastination Among University Students

The present research examines the association between personality traits and procrastination behavior among 148 university students (52 males, 96 females). Respondents completed two measurements - Leonard Personality Inventory and General Procrastination Scale. Descriptive analysis indicated that Diploma Year 2 students scored the highest (Mean = 58.47), while Degree Year 1 students scored the lowest (Mean = 54.75) in the level of procrastination. Personality traits profiling consistently indicated that the most dominant personality trait of Diploma Year 2, Degree Year 1, 2 and 3 students is Neutral trait (Mean = 78.05, 80.75, 78.84 & 76.82); while the least dominant trait is Decisiveness (Mean = 67.48, 68.25, 69.89 & 68.33). The most dominant personality traits among male university students are Openness (Mean = 75.77), Decisiveness (Mean = 68.69) and Neutral (Mean = 78.48), while female university students are Analytical (Mean = 73.36) and Relational (Mean = 72.42). Meanwhile, male students scored slightly higher in procrastination (Mean = 58.25) as compared to females (Mean = 57.09). However, independent sample t-test indicated no significant gender differences in respondents’ level of academic procrastination [t (146) = .702, p > .05]. Finally, correlational analyses reported no significant associations between the five personality traits with procrastination behavior among university students. Future studies should explore on whether cultural differences may influence personality traits and the level of academic procrastination of university students.

Effect of different personality on procrastination behavior of university students

Objective To study the effect of different personality on procrastination behavior of university students. Methods 126 university students were assessed by the General Procrastination Scale(GPS) and the big five personality inventory short form(NEO-FFI). Results GPS score of the student was(53.26±9.92). There were 84.9% students respectively had different level of procrastination behavior.There were no significant differences in university students by gender and grades.There were significant negative correlation between procrastination and personality factor of conscientiousness(r=-0.563, P<0.01 ) and significant negative correlation with agreeableness(r=-0.236, P<0.01)and extraversion. The big five personality factors of conscientiousness can effectively predict the procrastination behavior of college students. Conclusion Procrastination is a very common phenomenon in the university students. The students with lower conscientiousness , agreeableness and extraversion of big five personality have more procrastination behavior. Key words: University students; Procrastination; Big five personality; Conscientiousness

Dynamic interplay of depression, perfectionism and self-regulation on procrastination

This study aimed at investigating the intercorrelation among affective, cognitive and behavioural components on procrastination. A total of 402 undergraduate students (115 males, 286 females, 1 not indicated) participated in the study. Students completed the General Procrastination Scale, Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale, Frost Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale and Self-regulation Inventory. A constructed hypothesised model was tested by utilising path analysis. Overall, the analysis indicated that the model sufficiently explained the data. The findings showed the multicorrelation among the variables, ranging from 14 to 58. Squared multiple correlation coefficients (R2) of procrastination revealed that endogenous and mediator variables explained 33% of the total variance in procrastination. The results demonstrated the importance of affect, cognition and behaviour on problematic delay referred to as procrastination.

Countering The Rise in Covid-19 Related Procrastination: An Intervention Study

The lockdown due to Covid-19 has propelled a lot of individuals to procrastinate more and deviate from their usual standards of well-being. Procrastination becomes unhealthy for the youth as it involves a harmful delay of tasks that turns into dysfunction. A total of 27 individuals in the 18-25 age group met the sampling criteria and are selected to undergo various interventions for three weeks. The underlying assumption is that the lockdown is related to an increase in procrastination due to numerous factors. The present study is a pre and post design to understand how the interventions made a difference. Lay’s General Procrastination Scale (1986) is used along with a brief qualitative interview to assess the results. The research hypothesis suggests that helpful interventions lead to a decrease in Procrastination. Results show 100% decrease in procrastination levels with significance beyond 0.001 level at the end of interventions, hence, the hypothesis is proved. The study confirms that simple interventions such as mindfulness, physical activity, meditation can be applied to effectively tackle procrastination and enhance well-being.

Procrastination, Stress and Coping among Primary School Teachers

In this paper we focus on finding the relationship between procrastination as personal feature manifested by behaviour, which is characterized by the postponement of activities and tasks to a later time, with the experienced stress (expressed by cognitive, emotional, social and physical dimension) and the preferred strategies of coping with stress (proactive coping, reflective coping, strategic planning, preventive coping, instrumental support seeking, emotional support seeking, avoidance coping). Based on professional resources, we assumed a considerable positive correlation between procrastination and experienced stress – cognitive, emotional, physical and social, positive relation between procrastination and avoidance coping and negative relation between procrastination and proactive coping by 194 primary school teachers from Slovakia (173 females, 21 males, mean age 38.6 years). To measure the research variables we used: General Procrastination Scale (Lay, 1986), Questionnaire for identification of stress level and burnout syndrome (Henning & Keller, 1996) and Proactive Coping Inventory (Greenglass et al., 1999). We confirmed our assumptions and we found a significant positive correlation between procrastination and stress (cognitive dimension r=.512, p<0,001, emotional dimension r=.229, p=0,001, social dimension r=.331, p<0,001) and avoidance coping (r=.424, p<0,001). We identify the negative significant correlation between procrastination and proactive coping (r=-.422, p<0,001), reflective coping (r=-.244, p=0,001), instrumental support seeking (r=-.143, p<0,05), emotional support seeking(r= -.152, p<0,05).

Psychometric Properties of Adult Inventory of Procrastination in a Turkish Sample

The present study assessed the psychometric properties of the Adult Inventory of Procrastination for Turkish adults. The Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP), General Procrastination Scale (GP), and Decisional Procrastination Scale were administered to 423 Turkish adults (183 women, 240 men; Mage = 38.7, SD = 8.24) working in the governmental institutions in Turkey. The results of the confirmatory factor analysis yielded fit index values demonstrating viability of univariate factor solution as in the original. Findings also revealed that, as predicted, the AIP score was strongly correlated with GP score (r = .66). Overall, results provided evidence for the factor validity and reliability of the Turkish version of the scale for use in Turkish adult populations.

Academic Procrastination among Undergraduates Attending School of Physical Education and Sports: Role of General Procrastination, Academic Motivation and Academic Self-Efficacy.

Today, procrastination is a more common phenomenon among students than ever. Because they have lots of thing to do but they have limited time. When the literature concerning procrastination is reviewed, it can be easily made out that reasons for procrastination behaviours are various. Because of these reasons, sometimes, we do not go into action until the very last minute, sometimes, we go into action after the scheduled time is over or we never go into action. Especially, undergraduates frequently exhibit procrastination behaviour toward their academic tasks such as preparing homework, studying and preparing for exams. Researches on this subject clearly show that it is impossible to explain procrastination behaviour with only one variable. So the aim of this study was to investigate whether general procrastination, academic motivation and academic self-efficacy can act as predictors of academic procrastination among undergraduates attending different departments (physical education and sport teaching, trainer education, sport management and recreation) at school of physical education and sports. In addition, their academic procrastination was examined in terms of gender, department and grade variables. The study group consisted of 774 students attending school of physical education and sports at Selcuk University, Samsun University, and NiAŸde University in Turkey. The academic procrastination scale, general procrastination scale, academic motivation scale, academic self-efficacy scale and a personal data form were used as scaling instruments. Pearson’s correlation coefficient, multiple regression analysis, independent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were used to analyze the data collected. The results show a significant positive correlation between academic procrastination and general procrastination, while the relationship between academic procrastination and, academic motivation, academic self-efficacy was not statistically significant. Furthermore, general procrastination was determined to be a significant predictor of academic procrastination. The results also show a significant difference in academic procrastination in terms of students’ departments and grade though levels of academic procrastination did not differ in terms of gender. These findings are discussed in the light of the relevant literature and some new directions for further studies are suggested. Key words: School of physical education and sports academic procrastination, general procrastination, academic motivation, academic self-efficacy.

A study on the correlation between procrastination and the mentalities of anxiety and depression among medical postgraduates

Objective To discuss the correlation between procrastination and the mentalities of anxiety and depression among medical postgraduates,so as to carry out mental health work effectively.Methods 423 medical postgraduates in Central South University were assessed randomly, using General Procrastination Scale (GPS),Self-rating Anxiety Scale(SAS),Self-rating Depression Scale (SDS).Results Procrastination score and incidence in medical postgraduates was 54.92±8.40 and 60.99%respectively,the differences of procrastination scores(53.3l±8.21,55.90±8.30,55.75±8.49,P=0.013)and incidences(52.60%,66.09%,65.58%.P =0.028)among three grades were statistically significant.Both total coarse score of anxiety and that of depressionwere higher than that of the whole country(31.24±7.40,29.78±10.07,P=0.000;34.8±8.11,33.46±8.55,P=0.000),the differences were statistically significant.Procrastination had a positive correlation with anxiety and depression significantly(r=0.304,P=0.000;r=0.369,P=0.000),the higher the grade was,the weaker the intensity of correlation was.Hish-delay group,low-delay group and normal-behavior group had different deglees of anxiety(46.63±10.55,44.01±10.12,38.32±7.57,P=0.000)and depression(51.45±10.12,47.81±10.78,40.69±8.23,P=0.000),which was statistically significant.Conclusion Anxiety and depression among medical postgraduates were outstanding and had a close relationship with procrastination behavior,which should be taken seriously and handled by strengthening mental health education. Key words: Medical postgraduates; Procrastination; Anxiety; Depression

In search of the arousal procrastinator: Investigating the relation between procrastination, arousal-based personality traits and beliefs about procrastination motivations

Arousal procrastination was investigated to determine: (a) If the General Procrastination Scale (GP; Lay, 1986) measures procrastination motivated by arousal, and (b) whether sensation seeking (SS), extraversion (E), and the reducer index (R) account for variance in beliefs about the motivation for academic procrastination. Participants were 311 undergraduate students (60.1% female), primarily Caucasian (63.3%), with a mean age of 20.09 ( SD = 3.08). An online questionnaire package included measures of procrastination and 3 arousal-based personality inventories. A factor analysis of the GP and the Sensation Seeking Scale-V (SSS-V; Zuckerman, Eysenck, & Eysenck, 1978) produced six factors with the GP and SSS-V items loading on separate factors, indicating no relation. A regression analysis revealed that SS, E, and R together accounted for 5.2% of the variance in participants’ arousal-related beliefs motivating their procrastination. These results challenge the existing literature claiming that the GP is a measure of arousal procrastination, but do indicate that some individuals believe that their procrastination is motivated by a need for heightened arousal.

Determining the Variables Which Explain the Behavior of Academic Procrastination in University Students

The purpose of the study was to investigate if academic motivation, anxiety, time management, general procrastination and irrational beliefs predicted academic procrastination behaviour. Participants (N=250) were the students attending different faculties of Ankara University. The Academic Procrastination Scale (Yorulmaz, Çakıcı ve Gülebağlan, 2003), the Irrational Beliefs Scale (Türküm, 1999), the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (Köymen, 1994) and the General Procrastination Scale (Yorulmaz, Çakıcı ve Gülebağlan, 2003) were the tools employed in order to collect data. Pearson correlation analysis and multiple linear regression were used in the process of data analysis. Correlation analyses showed that there are positive and significant relationship between academic procrastination and general procrastination, significant but mild relationship between academic procrastination and anxiety, positive and significant relationship between academic procrastination and time management. There were no significant relations between academic procrastination and other variables. The equation variables in regression analysis, cognitive distortion and anxiety did not predicted the academic procrastination significantly. However, it’s found that general procrastination, time management and motivation predicted the academic procrastination significantly

An ego identity perspective on volitional action: Identity status, agency, and procrastination

Identity has been positively related to agency. Agency theoretically confers the capacity for action required for timely task completion. Given this theoretical link between identity and procrastination, we hypothesized that level of ego identity development would be negatively related to procrastination. Participants (101 female, 38 male) completed the Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status-revised, the Procrastination Assessment Scale – Students, and the General Procrastination Scale. Diffusion ( r = .22) and Moratorium ( r = .30) status scores showed significant positive correlations with an aggregate measure of procrastination, Achievement status scores ( r = −.34) yielded a negative correlation, and Foreclosure status scores showed no significant correlation. A regression of the four identity status scores on procrastination while controlling for gender was significant ( R 2 = .19, F (5, 133) = 6.09, p < .001) with Moratorium and Achievement scores accounting for the variance in the aggregate procrastination measure. These findings support both our hypothesis of a negative relation of identity status to procrastination and the theoretical link between agency and procrastination. The opposite relation of Moratorium and Achievement to procrastination is explained in terms of Erikson’s ego synthetic and executive functions and their link to the identity dimensions of exploration and commitment.

Development of Japanese Version of General Procrastination Scale

The purpose of this study was to develop Japanese version of General Procrastination Scale (J-GPS) and to examine its reliability and validity. In Study 1, data obtained from 174 undergraduates were analyzed. Results showed sufficient internal consistency, factorial and concurrent validity with another procrastination scale. In Study 2, further data were obtained from 77 undergraduates. These data were analyzed to examine concurrent validity in terms of clinical and behavioral scales. Results indicated that J-GPS had a positive correlation with depression, anxiety, and actual procrastinatory behavior. These findings provided sufficient support for reliability and validity of J-GPS.

Metacognitions, Emotions, and Procrastination

The present study explored the relationships between metacognitions, negative emotions, and procrastination. A convenience sample of 179 participants completed the following questionnaires: General Procrastination Scale, Decisional Procrastination Scale, Meta-cognitions Questionnaire 30, Penn State Worry Questionnaire and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. A cross-sectional design was adopted and data analysis consisted of correlation and multiple regression analyses. One dimension of metacognitions was found to be positively and significantly correlated with behavioral procrastination. Four dimensions of metacognitions were found to be positively and significantly correlated with decisional procrastination. Positive and significant relationships were also observed between anxiety, depression and behavioral procrastination; and between anxiety, depression, worry, and decisional procrastination. Multiple regression analyses indicated that depression and beliefs about cognitive confidence independently predicted behavioral procrastination, and that depression and positive beliefs about worry independently predicted decisional procrastination. These preliminary results would seem to suggest that metacognitive theory may be relevant to understanding procrastination. Keywords: anxiety; depression; worry; metacognitions; procrastination Procrastination is so common that it hardly seems problematic or worthy of significant scrutiny. However, people that present a chronic behavior of intentional inactivity report experiencing negative emotions because of their inability to complete tasks on time, meet deadlines, or make decisions on minor and major matters of life routine. A range of studies has shown that anxiety, depression, and worry are associated with procrastinatory behavior (Antony, Purdon, Huta, & Swinson, 1998; Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995; Stober & Joormann, 2001; Tallis, Eysenck, & Matthews, 1992). Research has shown that there are two fundamental types of procrastination (Ferrari, 1993; Milgram & Tenne, 2000). One type is defined as behavioral procrastination (McCown, Johnson, & Petzel, 1989), which is the delay of the completion of major and minor tasks. The other type is decisional procrastination, described as the purposive delay in making decisions within some specific time frame (Effert & Ferrari, 1989). Although cognitive therapy approaches explain the role of negative beliefs about the self in the maintenance of procrastination (Ellis & Knaus, 1977; Lopez & Wambach, 1982; McCown & Silverman, 1986; Shoham-Saloman, Avner, & Neeman, 1989), they do not explain the mechanisms by which beliefs affect or control the cognitive processing of procrastinators. A number of recent theorists (Wells, 2000; Wells & Matthews, 1994; Wells & Purdon, 1999) have highlighted the limitations of "content-based" cognitive therapy approaches, suggesting a novel framework for conceptualizing cognition in psychological dysfunction that emphasizes metacognition (Wells & Matthews, 1994). Metacognition refers to the beliefs, psychological structures, events, and processes that are implicated in the control, modification, and interpretation of thinking itself (Flavell, 1979; Wells, 2000). The Self-Regulatory Executive Function (S-REF; Wells & Matthews, 1994) theory was the first to conceptualize multiple metacognitive factors as control components of information processing that affect the development and persistence of psychological disorders. In their S-REF theory, Wells and Matthews (1994) suggest that the knowledge base of emotionally vulnerable individuals may be responsible for predisposing them to select and engage in maladaptive cognitive styles and control strategies (such as rumination and worry). More specifically, Wells and Matthews (1994) hypothesized that such strategies are linked to, and supported and directed by, underlying metacognitions regarding their functions and consequences. …