General Practitioner Cooperatives Research Articles

The Impact on Emergency Department Utilization and Patient Flows after Integrating with a General Practitioner Cooperative: An Observational Study

Introduction. A new model, an emergency care access point (ECAP) for after-hours emergency care, is emerging in The Netherlands. This study assessed the effect on emergency department (ED) utilization and patient flows. Methods. Routinely recorded clinical ED patient data, covering a six-year period, was collected. Segmented regression analysis was used to analyze after-hours changes over time. Results. 59.182 patients attended the ED before the start of the ECAP and 51.513 patients after, a decrease of 13%. Self-referred ED patients decreased 99.5% (OR 0.003; 95% CI 0.002–0.004). Referred patients increased by 213.4% and ED hospital admissions increased by 20.2%. A planned outpatient follow-up increased by 5.8% (OR 1.968 95% CI 1.870–2.071). The latter changed from fewer contacts to more contacts (OR 1.015 95% CI 1.013–1.017). Consultations at the regional genereral practitioner cooperative (GPC) increased by 26.0% (183.782 versus 232.246). Conclusion. ECAP implementation resulted in a decrease in ED utilization, a near absence of self-referring patients, and a higher probability of hospital admission and clinical follow-up. This suggests either an increase of ED patients with a higher acuity or a lower threshold of admitting referred patients compared to self-referred patients. Overall, increased collaboration with after-hours primary care and emergency care seemed to optimize ED utilization.

Information transfer to out-of-hours co-operatives: a survey of general practitioners’ views in relation to palliative patients

BackgroundIn Ireland, weekend and night medical cover for community based patients is largely provided by general practice co-operatives. Doctors working in this service do not have direct access to patients’...

Patient satisfaction with out-of-hours GP cooperatives: A longitudinal study

Objective. For over a decade, out-of-hours primary care in the Netherlands has been provided by general practitioner (GP) cooperatives. In the past years, quality improvements have been made and patients have become acquainted with the service. This may have increased patient satisfaction. The objective of this study was to examine changes in patient satisfaction with GP cooperatives over time. Design. Longitudinal observational study. A validated patient satisfaction questionnaire was distributed in 2003–2004 (T1) and 2007–2008 (T2). Items were rated on a scale from 0 to 10 (1 = very bad; 10 = excellent). Setting. Eight GP cooperatives in the Netherlands. Subjects. Stratified sample of 9600 patients. Response was 55% at T1 (n = 2634) and 51% at T2 (n = 2462). Main outcome measures. Expectations met; satisfaction with triage nurses, GPs, and organization. Results. For most patients the care received at the GP cooperative met their expectations (T1: 86.1% and T2: 88.4%). Patients were satisfied with the triage nurses (overall grade T1: 7.73 and T2: 7.99), GPs (T1: 8.04 and T2: 8.25), and organization (overall grade T1: 7.60 and T2: 7.78). Satisfaction with triage nurses showed the largest increase over time. The quality and effectiveness of advice or treatment were given relatively low grades. Of all organizational aspects, the lowest grades were given for waiting times and information about the cooperative. Conclusion. In general, patients were initially satisfied with GP cooperatives and satisfaction had even increased four years later. However, there is room for improvement in the content of the advice, waiting times, and information supply. More research is needed into satisfaction of specific patient groups.

Nurse telephone triage in Dutch out-of-hours primary care

In the Netherlands, a patient's first contact with a general practitioner cooperative, an out-of-hours primary-care center, is usually with a triage nurse. Previous research has shown that nurses sometimes underestimate the level of urgency, which may be caused by incomplete history taking. The aim of this study was to examine the relation between comprehensiveness of history taking and appropriateness of urgency estimation. Simulated patients, presenting 20 standardized vignettes, called four general practitioner cooperatives in different regions in the Netherlands that used the national telephone guidelines. We assessed the questions triage nurses asked in 304 audio-taped contacts, distinguishing between discriminating and general recommended questions. Discriminating questions help to confirm or reject a specific urgency level, whereas general questions are used to collect additional information regarding context. We calculated the percentage of recommended questions asked and made plots of the patterns of questions asked for chest pain and dyspnea. Mean numbers of discriminating and general questions per telephone contact were 4.4 and 3.2, respectively. There were no differences between the number of discriminating questions asked for contacts with correctly estimated urgency and contacts with underestimated urgency. We identified clusters of frequently asked questions, which were similar for contacts with correctly estimated and contacts with underestimated urgency. Incomplete asking of recommended questions through telephone triage was not associated with underestimation of urgency. Pattern recognition may be more important for identification of urgent health problems by nurses than asking all crucial questions during history taking.

End-of-life hospital referrals by out-of-hours general practitioners: a retrospective chart study

BackgroundMany patients are transferred from home to hospital during the final phase of life and the majority die in hospital. The aim of the study is to explore hospital referrals of palliative care patients for whom an out-of-hours general practitioner was called.MethodsA retrospective descriptive chart study was conducted covering a one-year period (1/Nov/2005 to 1/Nov/2006) in all eight out-of-hours GP co-operatives in the Amsterdam region (Netherlands). All symptoms, sociodemographic and medical characteristics were recorded in 529 charts for palliative care patients. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the variables associated with hospital referrals at the end of life.ResultsIn all, 13% of all palliative care patients for whom an out-of-hours general practitioner was called were referred to hospital. Palliative care patients with cancer (OR 5,1), cardiovascular problems (OR 8,3), digestive problems (OR 2,5) and endocrine, metabolic and nutritional (EMN) problems (OR 2,5) had a significantly higher chance of being referred. Patients receiving professional nursing care (OR 0,2) and patients for whom their own general practitioner had transferred information to the out-of-hours cooperative (OR 0,4) had a significantly lower chance of hospital referral. The most frequent reasons for hospital referral, as noted by the out-of-hours general practitioner, were digestive (30%), EMN (19%) and respiratory (17%) problems.ConclusionWhilst acknowledging that an out-of-hours hospital referral can be the most desirable option in some situations, this study provides suggestions for avoiding undesirable hospital referrals by out-of-hours general practitioners at the end of life. These include anticipating digestive, EMN, respiratory and cardiovascular symptoms in palliative care patients.

Predicting the place of out-of-hours care—A market simulation based on discrete choice analysis

BackgroundIncreasing cost pressure and changing patients’ needs in the healthcare sector have led to new delivery models for primary care. Researchers and practitioners need to establish innovative methods to obtain insights into patients’ preferences and effectiveness of healthcare services. AimThis study reveals the crucial decision criteria of patients in choosing out-of-hours services and provides a projection of a future market share of the newly established central out-of-hours service, called General Practitioner Cooperative. DesignA computer-aided discrete choice experiment. MethodRespondents were 350 patients in a European city who decided for a service when confronted with a medical emergency in an out-of-hours case; two scenarios called ‘adult’ and ‘child’, describing the persons requiring medical assistance, were used to increase generalizability. ResultsThe two most important attributes were ‘explanation by the doctor’ and ‘waiting time’ while the others – ‘availability of technical equipment’, ‘ease of access’, ‘type of consultation’ and ‘payment method’ – were of less importance. The market share projections predict that the new General Practitioner Cooperative will capture about one third of the market (‘adult’: 39.1%, ‘child’: 31.3%), ahead of the emergency department, the second most preferred service (‘adult’: 32.7%, ‘child’: 30.7%). ConclusionsThis study quantifies the adoption of a new medical service. As a result, it extends current research approaches on eliciting and matching patient's needs and assists policy makers in establishing adequate service capacities.

Periodisches Fieber, aphthöse Stomatitis, Pharyngitis und Lymphadenitis (PFAPA-Syndrom) im Erwachsenenalter

The PFAPA syndrome is characterized by a regular appearance of periodic fever, aphthous stomatitis, pharyngitis and cervical adenitis and is associated with a distinctive poor general condition of the patients. Since its first description in 1987 the syndrome has usually been described in children. But we here report its diagnosis in three adult patients. At the Department of Otorhinolaryngology/Head and Neck Surgery of the University Medical Center Freiburg, data on 36 patients with PFAPA syndrome were collected between 2004 and 2010. Data analysis was based on structured questionnaires, medical files of patients and a systematic assessment of the relevant international literature up to April 2011. The average age of the initial occurrence of PFAPA syndrome in the three patients was in the first few months after birth (month 2, 6 and 7). A tonsillectomy had been performed on all three patients in early childhood. As a result two patients had remission of symptoms for several years (4.5 and 12 years) with recurrence of PFAPA attacks while the third patient had no changes in symptoms. The PFAPA syndrome is an illness that first manifests itself in children. However, it can persist until adulthood or reappear after phases of remission. A knowledge of this periodic fever syndrome and extensive and close cooperation of general practitioners, paediatricians, internists and ENT specialists will be helpful in early diagnosis of this disorder.

Nurse telephone triage: good quality associated with appropriate decisions

Triage at out-of-hours GP cooperatives (GPCs) is aimed at determining medical urgency and guiding decisions. Both medical knowledge and communication skills are required for this complex task. To explore the impact of quality of consultation and estimated urgency on the appropriateness of decisions. We performed a secondary analysis of telephone triage consultations by nurses at 29 Dutch GPCs. Consultations were taped and assessed by trained observers, using a validated instrument. Measures concerned quality of consultation, nurse-estimated urgency (four levels) and appropriateness of decisions (urgency, follow-up advice and timing). Bivariate analyses and logistic multilevel regression analyses were used to explore the impact of quality of consultation (controlling for urgency) on appropriateness of decisions. The sample included 6739 telephone contacts, most of which (90%) were non-urgent. The majority of decisions were appropriate (91% for urgency, 96% for follow-up advice and 95% for timing). In bivariate analyses, appropriateness of decisions was positively related to higher quality of consultation. Estimated urgency was negatively associated with quality of consultation. Logistic multilevel analysis showed that higher quality of consultation was related to a more appropriate estimation of urgency [odds ratio (OR) = 1.82; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.69-1.95], follow-up advice (OR = 2.69; 95% CI: 2.41-3.01) and timing of decisions (OR = 2.41; 95% CI: 2.20-2.63). High quality of consultation has a positive, but small, impact on the appropriateness of decisions. Quality of consultation needs to be targeted in training and support of triage nurses, especially when it concerns highly urgent contacts.

GP cooperative and emergency department: an exploration of patient flows

In most countries, different health care providers are involved in emergency care. In the Netherlands, out-of-hours care is provided by general practitioner cooperatives (GPCs) and emergency departments (EDs). Our aim was to describe the flow of patients attending emergency care in these settings. A retrospective record review was performed, concerning patients who had visited a GPC or ED. Recorded information included urgency, diagnostic tests, and follow-up contacts. Descriptive figures were determined for patient flows in GPC and ED for urgent contacts and non-urgent contacts. We included 319 GPC contacts and 356 ED contacts, of which 78% were non-urgent. The majority of GPC contacts were completed at the GPC without follow-up; 37% of non-urgent patients had a follow-up contact, usually with primary care. Only 5% of non-urgent GPC patients received diagnostic tests compared to 63% of non-urgent ED patients (mostly X-rays). The majority of non-urgent ED patients (88%) had a follow-up contact, usually at an outpatient clinic (67%). Most non-urgent ED patients (83%) who received a diagnostic test also had an outpatient clinic follow-up contact. Of urgent ED patients, the majority had a follow-up contact (85%), mostly with an outpatient clinic (74%). Although most out-of-hours care patients present non-urgent health problems, at the ED they are more likely to receive diagnostic tests and follow-up contacts. This may reflect differences in patient populations between the ED and GPC or suggest opportunities for improving efficiency of planning follow-up contacts.

Referral of nonurgent children from the emergency department to general practice

To evaluate compliance and costs of referral of nonurgent children, who present at the emergency department, to the general practitioner cooperative (GPC). In a prospective observational before-after study, during 6 months in 2008, the triage nurse discussed referral to the GPC with parents, when self-referred children with a nontraumatic problem, aged 3 months-16 years were triaged as nonurgent (levels 4 and 5) according to the Manchester Triage System. A telephone follow-up was performed 2-4 days after referral. Real costs were calculated for emergency department consultation (preintervention period) and GPC referral (postintervention period). Compliance of referral was studied for 4 days a week. One hundred and forty patients were referred to the GPC, of which 101 out of 140 patients (72%) attended a follow-up. After discharge seven patients (7%) had an unscheduled revisit. No patients were subsequently hospitalized. In total 275 patients were included to study compliance, with 28 (10%) reported missing. Ninety-five out of 247 (38%) patients were referred to the general practitioner and 46 out of 247 parents (19%) refused referral. For 106 out of 247 patients (43%) referral was not initiated by the nurse mainly because of comorbidity. Mean costs per patient were €106 for the preintervention period and €101 for the postintervention period. Compliance of referring low urgent patients is low, mainly because it was difficult for nursing staff to refer. Total overall cost benefit is minimal. Cost savings may be achieved in different settings, where general practitioner services are colocated and where large numbers can be referred.

Diabetic neovascularisation and secondary glaucoma

Neovascular glaucoma develops from intraocular neovascularisation in diabetes mellitus. Neovascularisation is a consequence of hypoxia-induced production of vascular endothelial growth factor-A. Neovascular glaucoma is one of the most serious, sight-threatening late complications of diabetes. Several intraocular pressure lowering drugs, surgical and adjunctive laser treatments have been used to treat this disease, but the efficacy of the interventions is limited. The role of vascular endothelial growth factor-A blocking therapy in the treatment of neovascular glaucoma remains to be determined. Development of neovascularisation, however, can be prevented with adequate long-term glycemic and lipid control, effective treatment of arterial hypertension and optimal timing of adequate panretinal photocoagulation, in the majority of the cases. Unfortunately, in clinical practice diabetic neovascular glaucoma is more frequently experienced in Hungary than would be expected based on the variety of available therapeutic possibilities. In order to increase the success of prevention both cooperation of general practitioners, diabetologists, dietitians and ophthalmologists, and compliance of diabetic patients need to be improved.

Out-of-hours palliative care provided by GP co-operatives in the Netherlands: A focus group study

Background: In the Netherlands, out-of-hours primary care has been re-organized from small on-call rota groups to large-scale GP co-operatives. However, out-of-hours palliative care is an area of concern. According to studies in the UK, the transfer of information about terminally ill patients to GP co-operatives seems to be poor, resulting in care that is often inadequate. Our aim was to investigate the experiences of GPs in the Netherlands about the quality of out-of-hours palliative care provided by GP co-operatives, and to identify elements of care that might need to be improved. Methods: Setting: General practice. Design: Qualitative study, using three focus group discussions, analysed in a qualitative descriptive approach. Results: GPs participating in the focus groups, considered the quality of out-of-hours palliative care that is provided by GP co-operatives to be meagre. The service provided by the co-operatives was designed for acute medical problems, rather than for palliative care needs. The GPs reported three major problems: () lack of adequate information at the GP out-of-hours service; () lack of anticipatory care during office hours; and () absence of a palliative care policy in the GP co-operatives.Conclusions: Although GP co-operatives are capable of providing continuity in palliative care, improvements could be achieved if GPs and GP co-operatives address the problems mentioned above.

Quality of after-hours primary care in the Netherlands: adherence to national guidelines

ObjectiveTo assess the quality of after-hours clinical care as delivered by general practitioner (GP) cooperatives in the Netherlands.MethodsA cross-sectional analysis was undertaken of patient health records of five GP cooperatives...

Medical service centres in Germany â a competence-based form of cooperation for general practitioners?

In Germany, general practitioners, as well as other medical doctors usually are self-employed entrepreneurs. Medical service centres (MSCs) have been created by German legislation in 2004 in order to facilitate cooperation of general practitioners, on one hand, and to establish a system near a policlinic, which does not exist in (Western) Germany, on the other hand. The aim of the present study is to investigate using problem-centred interviews whether MSCs are a useful tool to build up core competencies. According to the interview partners, the bundling of resources can lead to additional competencies. Reasons for this development are seen in a good exchange of expert knowledge and joint learning. By means of close cooperation, more knowledge can be created than benchmarking with competitors. The overlapping of different areas of expertise is also seen as an advantage in specialised MSCs. However, legislation also leads to a suppression of the entrepreneurial general practitioner.

Patient safety in out-of-hours primary care: a review of patient records

BackgroundMost patients receive healthcare in primary care settings, but relatively little is known about patient safety. Out-of-hours contacts are of particular importance to patient safety. Our aim was to examine the incidence, types, causes, and consequences of patient safety incidents at general practice cooperatives for out-of-hours primary care and to examine which factors were associated with the occurrence of patient safety incidents.MethodsA retrospective study of 1,145 medical records concerning patient contacts with four general practice cooperatives. Reviewers identified records with evidence of a potential patient safety incident; a physician panel determined whether a patient safety incident had indeed occurred. In addition, the panel determined the type, causes, and consequences of the incidents. Factors associated with incidents were examined in a random coefficient logistic regression analysis.ResultsIn 1,145 patient records, 27 patient safety incidents were identified, an incident rate of 2.4% (95% CI: 1.5% to 3.2%). The most frequent incident type was treatment (56%). All incidents had at least partly been caused by failures in clinical reasoning. The majority of incidents did not result in patient harm (70%). Eight incidents had consequences for the patient, such as additional interventions or hospitalisation. The panel assessed that most incidents were unlikely to result in patient harm in the long term (89%). Logistic regression analysis showed that age was significantly related to incident occurrence: the likelihood of an incident increased with 1.03 for each year increase in age (95% CI: 1.01 to 1.04).ConclusionPatient safety incidents occur in out-of-hours primary care, but most do not result in harm to patients. As clinical reasoning played an important part in these incidents, a better understanding of clinical reasoning and guideline adherence at GP cooperatives could contribute to patient safety.

Validity of telephone and physical triage in emergency care: The Netherlands Triage System

Due to emergency care overcrowding, right care at the right place and time is necessary. Uniform triage of patients contacting different emergency care settings will improve quality of care and communication between health care providers. Validation of the computer-based Netherlands Triage System (NTS) developed for physical triage at emergency departments (EDs) and telephone triage at general practitioner cooperatives (GPCs). Prospective observational study with patients attending the ED of a university-affiliated hospital (September 2008 to November 2008) or contacting an urban GPC (December 2008 to February 2009). For validation of the NTS, we defined surrogate urgency markers as best proxies for true urgency. For physical triage (ED): resource use, hospitalization and follow-up. For telephone triage (GPC): referral to ED, self-care advice after telephone consultation or GP advice after physical consultation. Associations between NTS urgency levels and surrogate urgency markers were evaluated using chi-square tests for trend. We included nearly 10 000 patients. For physical triage at ED, NTS urgency levels were associated with resource use, hospitalization and follow-up. For telephone triage at GPC, trends towards more ED referrals in high NTS urgency levels and more self-care advices after telephone consultation in lower NTS urgency levels were found. The association between NTS urgency classification and GP advice was less explicit. Similar results were found for children; however, we found no association between NTS urgency level and GP advice. Physically and telephone-assigned NTS urgency levels were associated with majority of surrogate urgency markers. The NTS as single triage system for physical and telephone triage seems feasible.

GPs' views on transfer of information about terminally ill patients to the out-of-hours co-operative

BackgroundIn the Netherlands, the increase in of out-of-hours care that is provided by GP co-operatives is challenging the continuity of care for the terminally ill in general practice. Aim of this study is to investigate the views of general practitioners (GPs) on the transfer of information about terminally ill patients to the GP co-operatives. GPs were asked to give their view from two different perspectives: as a GP in their daily practice and as a locum in the GP co-operative.MethodsRetrospective web based questionnaire sent to all 424 GPs in the Amsterdam region.ResultsWith a response rate of 42%, 177 physicians completed the questionnaire. Transfer of information to the GP co-operative about most of their terminally ill patients was reported by 82% of the GPs and 5% did not do so for any of their patients. A faster than foreseen deterioration of the patient's situation was the most frequently reported reason for not transferring information.Of those who transferred information to the GP co-operative, more than 95% reported that they provided information about the diagnosis and terminally ill status of the patient. Information about medication, patient wishes regarding treatment, and prognosis was reported by respectively 90%, 87%, and 74% of the GPs. Less than 50% of the GPs reported that they transferred information about the patient's awareness of both the diagnosis and the prognosis, about the psychosocial context, and intolerances.In their role as locum, over 90% of the GPs wanted to receive information about the diagnosis, the terminally ill status of the patient, the medication and the patient's wishes regarding treatment.ConclusionsAlthough most GPs reported that they transferred information about their terminally ill patients to the GP co-operative, the content of this information varies considerably. Only 21% of the GPs, working out of hours as a locum, were satisfied with the quality of the information transferred.

Out-of-hours palliative care provided by GP co-operatives: availability, content and effect of transferred information

BackgroundOut-of-hours GP care in England, Denmark and the Netherlands has been reorganised and is now provided by large scale GP co-operatives. Adequate transfer of information is necessary in order to assure continuity of care, which is of major importance in palliative care. We conducted a study to assess the availability, content and effect of information transferred to the GP co-operatives.MethodsCross-sectional exploratory study of all palliative care phone calls during a period of one year to a GP co-operative.ResultsThe total number of phone calls about patients who needed palliative care was 0.75% of all calls to the GP co-operative. Information was transferred by GPs on 25.5% of palliative care patient calls, and on 12% of palliative care patient calls from residential care homes. For terminally ill patients the number of information transfers increased to 28.9%. When information was transferred, the content consisted mainly of clinical data. Information about the diagnosis and current problems was transferred in more than 90% of cases, information about the patient's wishes in 45% and information about the patient's psychosocial situation in 30.5% of cases.A home visit was made after 53% of the palliative care calls.When information was transferred, fewer patients were referred to a hospital.ConclusionGPs frequently fail to transfer information about their palliative care patients to the GP co-operatives. Locums working at the GP co-operative are thus required to provide palliative care in complex situations without receiving adequate informationGPs should be encouraged and trained to make this information available to the GP co-operatives.

Barriers and facilitators for successful after hours care model implementation: Reducing ED utilisation

Summary Background A systematic review examined the barriers and facilitators influencing the success and sustainability of after hours care models on acute care utilisation. Extensive research had been undertaken in many countries, particularly in the United Kingdom, The United States of America, Ireland, Canada, Denmark, Sweden, and to a lesser degree Australia. The literature covered the period from 1970–2008. The evidence demonstrated a positive impact on acute service utilisation patterns. There were few relevant randomised control trials. The evidence was largely based on quasi experimental (time series), before and after or comparative studies. Study results often noted barriers and facilitators for model success and sustainability. The relevant literature was largely international, so results may need to be interpreted in a considered way given geographical, cultural and social differences. This said the findings are relevant to the Australian context. Results The scope of the review focused on national and international studies of after hours care service models and their impact on acute care and ambulance services. The review identified six practicebased after hours care models: Telephone Triage and Advice services; GP Co-operatives services; Minor Injuries Units; Walk in Centres; Primary Care Health Centres; and, Ambulance Services (‘see and treat' and ‘treat and refer'). The models were not mutually exclusive from each other, Emergency Departments or General Practitioner clinics. The review identified seven barriers: Delivery and speed of Telephone Triage Services; Gate keeping practices of Medical Practitioners; Australian Triage Scale fails to accommodate primary health care patients; Ambulance paramedic role and referral options; Medical record system segregation between primary health and acute services; patient expectations and behaviour; and financial barriers. The seven key facilitators included: Integration, collaboration and identified outcome benefits; geographical location of after hours services; non-appointment systems and waiting times; financial incentives for increasing services; Nurse Practitioner role; expanding the Medical Benefits Scheme Rebate; and, media campaigns influence patient behaviour. Conclusions Many of the primary health care models implemented internationally are likely to have an impact within the Australian context and specifically on acute services. There is no doubt that primary health care type patients attend EDs. The identified barriers and facilitators provide a potential framework that could enhance primary health care reforms, integration, sustainability and acceptance of models and population health care outcomes.

Does distance matter? Geographical variation in GP out-of-hours service use: an observational study

GP cooperatives are typically based in emergency primary care centres, and patients are frequently required to travel to be seen. Geography is a key determinant of access, but little is known about the extent of geographical variation in the use of out-of-hours services. To examine the effects of distance and rurality on rates of out-of-hours service use. Geographical analysis based on routinely collected data on telephone calls in June (n=14 482) and December (n=19 747), and area-level data. Out-of-hours provider in Devon, England serving nearly 1 million patients. Straight-line distance measured patients' proximity to the primary care centre. At area level, rurality was measured by Office for National Statistics Rural and Urban Classification (2004) for output areas, and deprivation by The Index of Multiple Deprivation (2004). Call rates decreased with increasing distance: 172 (95% confidence interval [CI]=170 to 175) for the first (nearest) distance quintile, 162 (95% CI=159 to 165) for the second, and 159 (95% CI=156 to 162) per thousand patients/year for the third quintile. Distance and deprivation predicted call rate. Rates were highest for urban areas and lowest for sparse villages and hamlets. The greatest urban/rural variation was in patients aged 0-4 years. Rates were higher in deprived areas, but the effect of deprivation was more evident in urban than rural areas. There is geographical variation in out-of-hours service use. Patients from rural areas have lower call rates, but deprivation appears to be a greater determinant in urban areas. Geographical barriers must be taken into account when planning and delivering services.