General Parenting Research Articles

Neonatal meningitis in England and Wales: sequelae at 5 years of age

This study determined the prevalence of serious sequelae among a national cohort of 5-year old children, born in England and Wales in 1996-7, who had had neonatal meningitis. The results were compared with those from two matched control groups. In addition the results from this study were compared with those from a previous 5-year follow-up of children who had had neonatal meningitis in 1985-7. Follow-up questionnaires requesting information about the children's health and development were sent to the general practitioners (GPs) and parents of the index children and controls. Information was collected on 166 of 232 (72%) children who had had meningitis as neonates, 109 general practice controls and 191 hospital controls. At 5 years, 39/166 (23%) index children had a serious disability compared to 2% of GP controls and 7% of hospital controls. There was a 16-fold increase in risk of serious disability compared to GP-matched controls and a 4-fold increase in risk compared to hospital controls. The isolation of bacteria from the CSF was the best single predictor of serious long-term disability. Although there was a 70% fall in acute phase mortality between 1985 (22%) and 1996 (6.6%), the overall incidence of serious disability remained alarmingly high, 25.5% in 1985 compared to 23.5% in 1996. In the present study, however, fewer children had cerebral palsy or seizure disorders. Despite the dramatic improvement in acute phase survival following neonatal meningitis, the prevalence of serious sequelae remains alarmingly high.

Residual stress simulation in welded sections of P91 pipes

In this paper, a brief review of weld simulation and residual stress modelling using the finite element (FE) method is presented. The method of FE analysis of welded sections of P91 pipes is described. Mechanical and thermal material properties used in the modelling are related to a general P91 parent steel database, generated from available literature. Two specific FE examples are described, which are axisymmetric butt welds in P91 steel pipes having a 4 or 36 pass weld in a pipe with wall thickness of 7.1 or 40.0 mm, respectively. As part of a parametric study, eight more FE models with inside radius to wall thickness ratio ranging from 1 to 100 have been analysed to investigate the effect of pipe diameter on residual stresses. The thermal analysis has revealed temperature contours, which indicate the size of the weld region and the heat affected zone (HAZ). Residual axial and hoop stresses obtained from the analysis have been shown for a range of pipe diameters for the two pipe wall thicknesses. Trends of behaviour of residual stresses have emerged for the set of material properties implemented in the FE analysis. In addition, the effect of pipe diameter on the residual stresses has been presented.

Parenting Style and Smoking-Specific Parenting Practices as Predictors of Adolescent Smoking Onset

To test whether parenting style and smoking-specific parenting practices prospectively predicted adolescent smoking. Three hundred eighty-two adolescents (age 10-17 years, initial nonsmokers, 98% non-Hispanic whites) and their parents were interviewed, with smoking also assessed 1-2 years later. Adolescents from disengaged families (low acceptance and low behavioral control) were most likely to initiate smoking. Adolescents' reports of parents' smoking-related discussion was related to lowered smoking risk for adolescents with nonsmoking parents, but unrelated to smoking onset for adolescents with smoking parents. Smoking-specific parenting practices did not account for the effects of general parenting styles. Both parenting style and smoking-specific parenting practices have unique effects on adolescent smoking, although effects were largely confined to adolescents' reports; and for smoking-specific parenting practices, effects were confined to families with nonsmoking parents. Interventions that focus only on smoking-specific parenting practices may be insufficient to deter adolescent smoking.

Socially unbiased parenting support on the Internet: a cross‐sectional study of users of a large Swedish parenting website

The Internet is becoming increasingly recognized as a source of social support. Parents of children with cancer and autism have been shown to find social support online, and many parents of healthy infants and children seek information about parenting online. However, access and use of the Internet is greater among socio-economically advantaged groups, a phenomenon known as the 'digital divide'. Our aim was to investigate whether users of a Swedish general parenting website perceived support in the parenting role and, if so, whether this support was socially biased because of the digital divide phenomenon. Users of the largest Swedish parenting website were asked to participate in the study. A total of 2221 users completed the anonymous survey posted on the website during a one-week period. Most respondents (95%) were female (mean age 30.6 years). Respondents' educational level was slightly, but not significantly, higher than that in the general population, whereas 68% had income levels at or under the national average, contradicting the intuitive hypothesis that users would be socio-economically privileged. Perceived social support, measured by the Interpersonal Support Evaluation List (ISEL) appraisal subscale, indicated high perceived support. Living without a partner and having lower levels of income and education increased perceived support. The perception that other parents' opinions are more valuable than the advice of experts was influential in the regression equation for ISEL scores, indicating that peer help is important in online social support. Internet use for general parenting issues in Sweden, mainly by women, does not seem to follow the digital divide phenomenon. Therefore, the internet provides an exciting opportunity for future infant and child public health work. The lack of fathers, however, was a surprising finding and introduces a gender bias into this seemingly socially unbiased medium.

Perception of Parental Sex Role by University Student

Purpose: This study was conducted to describe the perception of parental sex role held by university students and to examine differences in perception of parental sex role according to student characteristics. Method: The participants were 336 university students in Gangreung city. The instrument of parental sex role was developed by the researcher and consisted of 3 subcategories; general parent role, parental sex role as a father and parental sex role as a mother. Results: The most positive item of parental sex role as a father is 'the Father's role is teaching about the value of society'. The most positive item of parental sex role as a mother is 'the Mother's role is to be a counselor or friend'. There were significant differences in perception of a father's role according to sex, type of college, fathers who lived with student during childhood, the relationship with the parent, the plan of marriage & having a child, responsibility of childrearing, and the need for education for the parental role. There were significant differences in perception of the mother's role according to sex, grade, type of college, birth order, type of family, persons who lived with student during childhood, the relationship with the parent, plan of marriage & having a child, responsibility of child-rearing, and the need for education for the parental role. Conclusion: The parental sex role changes overtime. Thus, it is important to identify university student's perception of parental sex roles as pre-parent preparation for parenting.

Revisiting a neglected construct: parenting styles in a child-feeding context

The extent to which general parenting represents feeding styles in ethnically diverse populations is not well documented. Existing measures of child feeding have focused almost exclusively on specific behaviors of European-American parents. A valid and reliable instrument was developed to identify feeding styles in parents of low-income minority preschoolers. Two hundred thirty-one parents (130 Hispanic; 101 African-American) completed questionnaires on feeding practices and parenting styles. Based on self-reported feeding behavior, parents were assigned to four feeding styles (authoritarian, n=84; authoritative, n=34; indulgent, n=80; and uninvolved, n=33). Convergent validity was evaluated by relating feeding styles to independent measures of general parenting and authoritarian feeding practices. Authoritarian feeding styles were associated with higher levels of general parental control and authoritarian feeding practices. Alternatively, authoritative feeding styles were associated with higher levels of general parental responsiveness. Among the two permissive feeding styles, Hispanic parents were more likely to be indulgent, whereas African-American parents were more likely to be uninvolved. Further, differences were found among the feeding styles on an independent measure of child's body mass index.

Practitioner Review: Stress intervention for parents of children with intellectual disabilities

Background: Parents of children with intellectual disabilities are at increased risk for stress and other mental health problems. The purpose of the present review is to consider the evidence base for psychological intervention to remediate stress in these parents.Methods: A selective review of interventions designed to reduce stress in parents of children with intellectual disabilities, with a focus on group interventions that incorporate various cognitive behavioural techniques.Results: Research evidence suggests that standard service models (e.g., respite care, case management) probably help to reduce parental stress. The strongest evidence base is for cognitive behavioural group interventions, especially for the reduction of stress in mothers. Some data also indicate the potential value of parent‐led support networks.Conclusions: More research and clinical development are needed to establish a firmer evidence base for stress interventions with parents of children with intellectual disabilities. There are also a number of potential practical implications of reducing parental stress for maximising the efficacy of general parent training interventions and also behavioural programmes for children's challenging behaviours.

Practitioner review: stress intervention for parents of children with intellectual disabilities.

Parents of children with intellectual disabilities are at increased risk for stress and other mental health problems. The purpose of the present review is to consider the evidence base for psychological intervention to remediate stress in these parents. A selective review of interventions designed to reduce stress in parents of children with intellectual disabilities, with a focus on group interventions that incorporate various cognitive behavioural techniques. Research evidence suggests that standard service models (e.g., respite care, case management) probably help to reduce parental stress. The strongest evidence base is for cognitive behavioural group interventions, especially for the reduction of stress in mothers. Some data also indicate the potential value of parent-led support networks. More research and clinical development are needed to establish a firmer evidence base for stress interventions with parents of children with intellectual disabilities. There are also a number of potential practical implications of reducing parental stress for maximising the efficacy of general parent training interventions and also behavioural programmes for children's challenging behaviours.

An overview of the Scottish multidisciplinary child protection review

ABSTRACTFollowing the murder of a young child by her stepfather a ministerial review of child protection across Scotland was established. It was carried out by a multidisciplinary team of representatives from education, health‐nursing, health‐medical, police, social work and the Reporter to the Children's Hearing. The review comprised a number of subprojects and included a direct audit of the practice of all the key agencies. The views of the general public, parents, children and professionals were obtained via a set of consultation subprojects. The audit of practice was built around a set of individual, in‐depth case studies. The cases were drawn from the spectrum of child care and protection cases by sampling from cases known to health visitors, education departments, the police and social work departments. The audit considered compliance with guidance, but the key focus was on outcomes for children.The findings indicated that although there were many examples of good practice with children, a significant number of children were left unprotected or their needs were not met. The issues were not unique to Scotland and are discussed under four key areas. The paper sets out the extent of chronic need amongst the child population that the audit revealed, looks at the messages from consultation about issues of accessing help for children or by children directly, and describes some shortcomings of the current system. Finally the paper analyses the ways that the different agencies interact and sets out a model for how the system can provide a protective network for children who are in need of protection and support.

Current practice and future interest of GPs and prospective parents in pre-conception care in The Netherlands.

Evidence for the effectiveness of pre-conception care is growing. GPs are among the possible providers of pre-conception care. Our first aim was to investigate current pre-conception care activities of GPs and to determine whether prospective parents would visit the GP in the existing health care system. A further aim was to determine the interest of GPs and prospective parents in the introduction of pre-conception care clinics. A survey was conducted among 200 GPs and 303 recently married couples (606 individuals). Of the eligible GPs, 52% (n = 102) participated, as did 70% (n = 381) of the eligible individuals who are planning a pregnancy. In the current situation, only a few individuals visit their GP pre-conceptionally, and many GPs do not discuss family history or consanguinity with prospective parents. In general, the GPs and prospective parents had a positive attitude towards the introduction of pre-conception care clinics. Since most GPs and prospective parents favoured the introduction of pre-conception care, future research should focus on the most appropriate way of implementation.

Parental factors and adolescents' smoking behavior: an extension of The theory of planned behavior

Background. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether general parenting factors (i.e., quality parent–child relationship, psychological control, strict control, parental knowledge) and parental smoking add to The theory of planned behaviour [Organ Behav. Hum. Dec. 50 (1991) 179] in predicting the onset of smoking. A mediation model is applied in which parental factors affect smoking behavior indirectly by affecting smoking cognitions (i.e., attitude, self-efficacy, and social norm). Methods. The model was tested in a longitudinal study on 1,070 adolescents, aged 10–14 years old. Structural equation models (SEM) on current and on future smoking behavior were tested. Results. The findings showed that the quality of the parent–child relationship and parental knowledge affected adolescents' smoking behavior indirectly, while parental smoking behavior had a direct effect. Strict control and psychological control were found to be unrelated to adolescents' smoking onset. Conclusions. In prevention campaigns, parents should be informed of the extent to which they exert influence on their child's smoking behavior and should be given advice and information on how they can prevent their children from starting to smoke.

Preschoolers' Understanding of Simple and Complex Emotions: Links with Gender and Language

In this study we assessed individual differences among preschoolers' emotion understanding, verbal ability, and gender role behavior. Fifty-three children (M = 3 years, 5 months; 26 girls, 27 boys) participated in task that used puppets to assess their understanding of simple (happy, sad) and complex emotions (proud, embarrassed) and a standard vocabulary task. Parents completed a questionnaire on the frequency of their children's gender-typed behavior. Results indicated positive associations between children's total emotion understanding and both general verbal ability (particularly for boys) and parents' perceptions of stereotypic feminine behaviors. Gender analysis revealed that, independent of vocabulary ability, girls scored higher than boys on emotion labeling and understanding of complex emotions, especially the concept of pride. Results are discussed in relation to individual differences and effects of sociocultural context.

A Study to Inform the Recruitment and Retention of General Applicant Adoptive Parents

ABSTRACTThis study used data from multiple sources to document interest in foster care adoption among general applicants nationally, the characteristics of general applicant adoptive parents and the children they adopt, the experiences general applicants have had with the adoption process, and factors that influence the success of general applicants in having a child placed with them. Data from a national survey of adoption managers suggest that there are approximately 240,000 calls each year from persons seeking to adopt children in foster care. It appears that the vast majority of persons who contact child welfare agencies about adoption drop-out early in the process.

Why Parents Matter!: The Conceptual Basis for a Community-Based HIV Prevention Program for the Parents of African American Youth

The Parents Matter! Program (PMP) is a community-based family intervention designed to promote positive parenting and effective parent-child communication about sexuality and sexual risk reduction. Its ultimate goal is to reduce sexual risk behavior among adolescents. PMP offers parents instruction and guidance in general parenting skills related to decreased sexual risk behavior among youth (e.g., relationship building, monitoring) and sexual communication skills necessary for parents to effectively convey their values and expectations about sexual behavior—as well as critical HIV, STD, and pregnancy prevention messages—to their children. We briefly review the literature concerning parental influences on adolescent sexual risk behavior and present the conceptual model and theoretical foundation upon which PMP is based.

The Relationship of Parental Overprotection and Perceived Child Vulnerability to Depressive Symptomotology in Children With Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus: The Moderating Influence of Parenting Stress

Our study examined the relationship between parental overprotection and perceived child vulnerability to self-reported depressive symptoms in 8- to 12-year-old children diagnosed with type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. The moderating influence of parenting stress was also examined. Mothers (N = 43) completed measures of parental overprotection, perceived child vulnerability, and parenting stress, and the children completed a measure of child depression. Findings revealed that both child vulnerability and parenting stress were associated with higher levels of depressive symptoms; no relationship was found between overprotection and child depressive symptoms. Regression results further indicated that parenting stress moderated the relationship between perceived child vulnerability and depressive symptomotology. Thus, parenting stress appears to magnify the relationship between perceived child vulnerability and child-reported depressive symptoms. Our findings lend additional empirical support for the transactional relationship between discrete parenting variables and child distress. These results also support the view that overprotection and child vulnerability are distinct but overlapping constructs. Interventions that target specific parenting approaches and general parenting stress may be effective in ameliorating child distress.

Caregiver-child interactions and their impact on children's fluency: implications for treatment.

There is a relatively strong focus in the stuttering literature on the desirability of selected alterations in parental speech and language style in the management of early stuttering. In this article, the existing research support for such recommendations is evaluated, together with relevant research from the normal language acquisition literature that bears on the potential consequences of changing parental interaction style. Recommendations with relatively stronger and weaker support are discussed. Ways in which children's communication styles and fluency may be altered through newer fluency treatment protocols are contrasted with older, more general parent advisements. Finally, directions for future research into the efficacy of recommendations made to the parents of children who stutter (CWS) are offered.

The Family Context of Preadolescents' Orientations Toward Education: Effects of Maternal Orientations and Behavior.

This study examines different pathways of maternal influence on the value that preadolescents attribute to mathematics and German language as domains of education. On the basis of data from 355 students and their mothers, the author tested effects of mothers' education, general parenting practices, leisure pursuits, joint activities with their children, school involvement, and their own evaluation of mathematics and German language. Results of structural equation modeling point to students' perceptions of maternal values as a central factor affecting students' values. Perceived maternal values vary depending on mothers' behavior rather than on values actually reported by mothers.

Age-related parenting stress differences in mothers of children with spina bifida.

This study examined whether ages of child and parent were risk factors for general parenting stress and disability-specific stress in families of children with spina bifida. Parents of 64 children with spina bifida completed the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form, Parents of Children with Disabilities Inventory, and measures of family support and resources. Scores of families with children under 6 years (preschool) versus 6- to 12-yr.-old children (school age) were compared, as were scores of mothers above or below Age 35. Parents of school-aged children reported significantly higher stress on the Concerns for the Child domain of the Parents of Children with Disabilities Inventory. Mothers over 35 tended to report higher stress in the Concerns for the Child and Medical/Legal Concerns domains of the Parents of Children with Disabilities Inventory. No associations with medical severity, socioeconomic status, family resources, or family support were detected. As the children age and disability-related differences become more apparent, the same level of functioning and severity of disability may be associated with additional parenting stress. Older mothers and those with school-age children may need more resources than current social support systems typically provide.

Do children with asthma and their parents agree on household ETS exposure? Implications for asthma management

The adverse consequences of passive smoking have spurred efforts to reduce environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) exposure among children, particularly in the home. For children with asthma, teaching them to avoid tobacco smoke at home is an important element of patient self-management. This strategy assumes that children can accurately assess household smoking behaviors and the level of their own exposure in the home. This study compared child and parental assessments of household smoking behaviors in an urban, low-income and largely ethnic minority sample of asthmatic children and their parents. While there was general parent–child agreement on the smoking status of household members, there was less agreement on duration of household smoking and the child’s exposure to ETS. Objective validation measures (cotinine, nicotine) suggest that parents were better able than their children to assess hours of indoor smoking. Children’s assessment of the extent of exposure to ETS may be problematic, with important implications for asthma patient self-management efforts.

Foster family resources, psychosocial functioning, and retention

The chronic shortage of foster families is exacerbated by the fact that many families discontinue during the first year. This longitudinal study examined the effect of family resources and psychosocial problems on retention. Almost 50 percent of families who started preservice training did not complete it. Of the 131 families who completed training, 46 percent had already discontinued or planned to discontinue at six-months. Families with more resources, especially income, were more likely to continue. African American and single-parent families were less likely to continue, but not when controlling for income. Families with more psychosocial problems and fewer resources were more likely to express uncertainly about continuing. These results have important implications for recruitment and retention of foster families. Key words: drop out; foster care; foster families; foster parents; retention ********** Three-fourths of the 568,000 children in foster Care live with foster families (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2001). Even with the rise in the use of kinship homes, agencies place approximately two-thirds of children in nonkinship families (DHHS, 2001). However, national data based on reports from 38 states indicate that there were only 133,500 licensed nonkinship foster families (Child Welfare League of America [CWLA], 1998). Up to 40 percent of foster families discontinue fostering during the first year (Baring-Gould, Essick, Kleinkauf, & Miller, 1983; Casey Family Programs, 2000; Chamberlain, Moreland, & Reid, 1992; Pasztor & Wynne, 1995; Ryan, 1985; U.S. General Accounting Office [GAO], 1989), and another 20 percent plan to do so (Rhodes, Orme, & Buehler, 2001). Consequently, there is a chronic shortage of foster families. Parenting competence in general and foster parenting ability in particular result from the cumulative effects of social and economic resources and parental and familial psychosocial functioning (Sameroff, Bartko, Baldwin, Baldwin, & Seifer, 1998; Seaberg & Harrigan, 1997, 1999). The number of family resources has been associated positively with willingness to provide placements for children with special needs and with measures of foster home utilization (Cox, Orme, & Rhodes, in press). However, little research exists concerning the effects of such resources or psychosocial functioning on families' decisions to foster. In addition, there is little research on what influences individuals to become foster parents (Baum, Crase, & Crase, 2001; Cox, Buehler, & Orme, 2002), and no earlier research on why some families discontinue fostering during the first year, despite documentation of high dropout rates during this time. RETENTION RESEARCH Only a small percentage of agency-recruited families ultimately become foster parents (Friedman, Lardieri, Murphy, Quick, & Wolfe, 1980; Rodwell & Biggerstaff, 1995; Siegel & Roberts, 1989). Many families discontinue after their first few contacts with agencies (Friedman et al., 1980) or self-select out during preservice training (Pasztor, 1985). Other families complete training then decide not to pursue fostering. Agencies eliminate some applicants because of age, poor health, criminal background, or other reasons. Yet, the percentage of rejected families is small compared with those who discontinue voluntarily before approval (Kadushin & Martin, 1988). Dropout before approval might screen out unsuitable applicants (Smith & Gutheil, 1988), but this has never been examined empirically. What we know about why families discontinue fostering has come from a few cross-sectional studies. Some studies have found that foster parents were more likely to discontinue if they were dissatisfied with agency relationships or had poor communication with workers (Bating-Gould et al., 1983; Rhodes et al., 2001; Triseliotis, Borland, & Hill, 1998) or if they had concerns about children's behavior, children returning to undesirable circumstances, agency red tape, low reimbursement rates, or the fostering role (Denby & Rindfleisch, 1996; Rhodes et al. …