General Growth Mixture Modeling Research Articles

Maternal prenatal cortisol trajectories predict accelerated growth in infancy

Higher maternal cortisol in pregnancy has been linked to childhood obesity. Much of the previous research has been limited in that cortisol in pregnancy is only measured at one time-point, precluding the ability to examine critical timing effects of prenatal maternal cortisol. To fill this gap, this longitudinal study measured maternal plasma cortisol at 15, 19, 25, and 31 weeks of pregnancy, and assessed infant body mass index percentile (BMIP)11Body mass index percentile. at birth, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months in 189 mother-infant pairs. Three distinct patterns of maternal cortisol in pregnancy (typical, steep, and flat trajectories) were identified using general growth mixture modeling (GGMM)22General growth mixture modeling. and then used to predict child growth patterns using multilevel modeling. Infants of mothers who had flat cortisol trajectories, characterized by relatively high cortisol in early gestation that plateaus by mid-gestation, experienced more rapid increases in BMIP from birth to 6 months, and had higher BMIPs at 3 and 6 months, than infants whose mothers had the typical slow cortisol rise over gestation, or steep (rapidly accelerating) trajectories. These results suggest that it is not just the total amount of maternal cortisol in pregnancy that shapes early infant growth, but instead the timing and trajectory of prenatal cortisol exposure. To better understand the early origins of obesity risk, future research is needed to investigate the factors that shape mothers’ prenatal cortisol trajectories.

Testing the Impact of the Whole-Day Good Behavior Game on Aggressive Behavior: Results of a Classroom-Based Randomized Effectiveness Trial.

Three generations of developmental epidemiologically based randomized field trials of the Good Behavior Game (GBG) have been delivered to Baltimore elementary schools. With the collaboration of family and community partners, all three trials were directed at decreasing proximal targets of aggressive behavior and improving learning in first-grade classrooms with distal mental health and substance abuse outcomes. GBG is a group-contingent classroom behavior management strategy that promotes classmate/peer concern for each child's positive behavior by rewarding teams with below-criterion levels of aggressive, disruptive behavior. GBG targets early risk factors for the above distal outcomes: aggressive, disruptive behavior, family/school relationships, and school failure. Here, we report on the third-generation randomized prevention trial of the GBG (whole-day first grade program (WD)), including 12 elementary schools. WD enhanced the standard curriculum in the areas of classroom behavior management; academic instruction, particularly reading; and family-classroom partnerships. Using a within-school classroom randomized trial design, we: 1) evaluate the effectiveness of the WD program by sex and cohort and 2) measure variation in WD impact by the quality of teachers' behavior management practices. Data from 961 first graders were used in general growth mixture modeling that accounts for classroom randomization to identify distinct developmental trajectories of aggressive, disruptive behavior and GBG impact on these trajectories. In the chronic high aggression trajectory of males, ratings of aggression after WD implementation and to the end of third grade were significantly lower in the WD condition than in controls in classrooms with a higher WD dosage (Cohort 2) and especially in classrooms with higher quality of WD implementation. For females, we found a modest but significant benefit of GBG in the low trajectory class when cohorts were combined. Regarding policy implications, embedding GBG into the curricula in teacher's colleges could better support student learning and behavior. Clinical Trials Registration number: NCT00257088.

Emergence of multiple groups of learners with different writing-development trajectories in classroom: Growth mixture modeling

To explore factors that may affect learners’ longitudinal developmental trajectories, we investigated whether L2 learners show divergent trajectories of second-language writing development at a group level when they iterate a narrative writing task procedure in class from the perspective of complex dynamic systems theory. One-hundred five university students who were learning English as a foreign language in Japan and spoke Japanese as a mother tongue performed a timed narrative-writing task procedure once a week over one academic year (30 times). A growth mixture model was used to identify three groups with different developmental patterns: stagnating, steadily increasing, and markedly increasing. A general growth mixture model was used to indicate that the three groups had different achievements not only in writing performance but also in the course grade. It was also revealed that the grouping was influenced by the type of reflecting the students did after writing a composition. These findings suggest that individuals orient and act on a task differently, resulting in divergent developmental trajectories even at the group level. The results also indicate that detailed, rather than simple and superficial, reflection on one’s writing may promote learning through task iteration.

Effects of personality on the developmental trajectories of academic burnout among Korean medical students.

BackgroundMedical students have a high risk of burnout from tremendous academic stress, and previous cross-sectional studies have explained this risk from the personality perspective. However, the relationship between complex personality profiles and developmental trajectory of burnout has not been delineated yet.MethodsThe longitudinal changes in burnout were measured by the Maslach Burnout Inventory-Student Survey (MBI-SS) at baseline (1st week), mid-term (9th week), and end-term (17th week), and personality was examined at baseline using the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI). Latent trajectory groups based on the MBI-SS total scores were extracted using the General Growth Mixture Model (GGMM), and significant differences in personality profiles among the latent groups were identified using profile analysis and Analysis of Variance.ResultsThree burnout trajectory groups of high-increasing (HI), moderate-increasing (MI), and low-stable (LS) were identified, and these groups had significantly different TCI subscale profiles. The HI group had the highest score in Harm-Avoidance (HA) and lowest score in Self-Directedness (SD), and the MI group had a higher score in HA and lower scores in SD and Cooperativeness (CO) when compared to the LS group with the lowest score in HA and highest scores in SD and CO.ConclusionThe current study showed that the HA, SD, and CO subscales of the TCI might explain the longitudinal development of academic burnout in medical students. Prevention of burnout and promotion of well-being in medical education concerning personality are discussed.

Characterizing prenatal maternal distress with unique prenatal cortisol trajectories.

It is widely assumed that glucocorticoids represent a primary mechanism through which exposure to adversity and maternal psychological distress shape prenatal developmental trajectories of both mother and fetus. However, despite repeated investigations and the fact that prenatal cortisol has been reliably linked to developmental outcomes, the empirical evidence supporting an association between prenatal cortisol and maternal distress is scarce. In this study, a novel approach to assessing links between maternal prenatal psychological distress and gestational cortisol profiles, general growth mixture modeling (GGMM), was applied. Measures of pregnancy anxiety, perceived stress, and state anxiety and depressive symptoms as well as plasma samples (for determination of cortisol) were collected from 250 women 4 times during pregnancy. Using GGMM, 3 cortisol trajectory groups were identified, including a typical group (n = 199) that exhibited the expected steady increase in cortisol throughout gestation, a steep group (n = 31) displaying an accelerated increase in cortisol over the course of pregnancy relative to the typical group, and a flat group (n = 20) with relatively higher cortisol levels early in pregnancy that plateaued in midgestation. Women reporting the highest distress scores exhibited trajectories expected to be associated with the least optimal developmental outcomes (flatter trajectories characterized by relatively higher levels early in gestation and lower levels late in gestation). These findings suggest that psychological distress during pregnancy is associated with unique prenatal cortisol profiles and support further examination of this link, to enable continued evaluation of a plausible biological pathway by which maternal psychological distress programs fetal development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Concurrent Trajectories of Female Drinking and Smoking Behaviors Throughout Transitions to Pregnancy and Early Parenthood.

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to investigate whether there are distinct etiological processes explaining dual usage of alcohol and conventional cigarettes by mothers from preconception through the early parenting years. Data on 8800 biological mothers were drawn from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), representative of US births in 2001. A general growth mixture model (GGMM) was used to empirically identify developmental trajectories of maternal smoking and drinking over the 5-6-year study period. Six classes defined by alcohol consumption and cigarette smoking were identified. These included a nonsmoking, low probability of drinking class (41%), and two drinking classes displaying no smoking with either moderate (26%) or escalating high (8%) probability drinking. Additionally, two predominantly smoking classes were identified, one displaying temporary reduction in smoking during pregnancy and low probability of drinking (11%) and one following a trajectory of persistent heavy smoking with a declining probability of drinking (9%). The sixth class was described by temporary reduction in smoking during pregnancy with high probability of drinking (6%). Covariates differentially predicted class membership, e.g., having a high school degree but not further education predicted concurrent drinking and smoking, and breastfeeding for more than 6months is protective against concurrent use. Prior to conception, during prenatal care, and in post-natal clinical visits, whether for personal or pediatric care, screening women of reproductive age via characteristics that predict heterogeneity in smoking and drinking trajectories may help guide prevention and treatment options.

Trajectories of body dissatisfaction among South Korean youth: Findings from a nationally representative sample

The present study aimed to identify qualitatively different classes of growth trajectories of body dissatisfaction and to investigate the antecedents associated with the classes. The survey included a nationally representative sample of 2844 Korean children who started Grade 4 (younger cohort) and 3449 adolescents who began Grade 8 (older cohort) at baseline. Participants completed self-report surveys across five or six measurement periods separated by 1year each. General growth mixture modeling was used and results revealed several distinct longitudinal patterns. Findings from this study clearly suggest the importance of early intervention efforts. Interventions aimed at boosting autonomy may be valuable in reducing body dissatisfaction among children. The findings also highlight the critical importance of parent–child connectedness and friendship closeness in the success of the intervention.

Intergenerational Relationships and Self-Rated Health Trajectories Among Older Adults in Rural China

The present study examined trajectory patterns of self-rated health (SRH) among older rural Chinese adults and gender differences in the relationship between intergenerational relationships and SRH trajectories. Using data from four waves of a longitudinal study on the well-being of older adults in Anhui province, a general growth mixture model was estimated to examine the SRH trajectory patterns and antecedents of SRH trajectory class memberships. A two-class model was selected to interpret the SRH trajectory patterns. The two classes were labeled remaining poor and good but declining. Intergenerational relationships were a significant antecedent of SRH trajectory class memberships among men but not women. Gender differences in the cumulative effects of intergenerational relationships on the health of older adults were identified in rural China. Policy implications regarding how to help rural families support their elderly members are discussed.

Social Integration and Maternal Smoking: A Longitudinal Analysis of a National Birth Cohort.

Objectives Social support and engagement are related to smoking behavior in general populations, but it is unknown whether these measures of social integration as experienced by recent mothers are related to longitudinal maternal smoking patterns. The purpose of this study is, first, to describe longitudinal patterns of maternal smoking before, during, and after pregnancy through the early childhood parenting years, as well as variation in these patterns; and second, to examine these patterns in relation to social integration, emotional, behavioral, and sociodemographic factors. Methods Among 9050 mothers of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (a nationally representative probability sample of children born in 2001), we estimated trajectories of maternal smoking with a general growth mixture model and examined how baseline predictors are associated with these patterns over a 5-6year period beginning 3months prior to pregnancy. Results A 5-class solution identified trajectories of nonsmokers (70.5%), temporary quitters (9.4%), pregnancy-inspired quitters (3.3%), delayed initiators (5.1%), and persistent smokers (11.7%). Modifiable risk factors included postpartum alcohol consumption and behavioral cues from co-resident smokers, while breastfeeding beyond 6months and social engagement through religious service attendance were protective characteristics. Conclusions for Practice Prevention of and treatment for maternal perinatal and postpartum smoking is best informed by mothers' emotional, behavioral and sociodemographic characteristics. Religious service attendance, but not measures of social support or social engagement, was a protective factor for maternal smoking trajectories.

Developmental trajectories of self-injurious behavior, suicidal behavior and substance misuse and their association with adolescent borderline personality pathology

ObjectiveAdolescent risk-taking and self-harm behaviors are associated with affect dysregulation and impulsivity, both core features of borderline personality disorder (BPD). We hypothesized that the developmental courses of these behaviors i) tend to cluster rather than appear individually, and ii) might indicate adolescent BPD pathology. Therefore, we explored the developmental trajectories of self-injurious behavior (SIB), suicidal behavior (SB) and substance misuse (SM) in a community sample of adolescents; and we investigated the trajectories' overlap and its associations with BPD traits. Method513 adolescents, aged 15–17 years, were followed for two years as part of the Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe study and its subsequent follow-up. Distinct developmental trajectories were explored using general growth mixture modeling. ResultsThree distinct classes were identified within each of the harmful behaviors SIB, SB and SM. Both the high-risk SIB trajectory and the high-risk SB trajectory demonstrated elevated initial degree of engagement, followed by a gradual decrease. The SM high-risk trajectory had a medium initial degree of engagement, which increased over time. There was a high degree of overlap (80–90%) among the high-risk trajectories for the three behaviors (SIB, SB and SM), and this overlap was significantly associated with elevated levels of BPD pathology. LimitationsThe data collection was based on participants' self-report. ConclusionThe findings indicate a similar pattern of reduction over time between SIB and SB for the high-risk trajectories, whereas the high-risk trajectories for SM show a pattern of increase over time. The observed symptom shift is associated with borderline personality pathology in adolescents. Therefore these behaviors might represent early indicators of risk supporting potential early detection.

Trajectories of Callous-Unemotional Traits in Childhood Predict Different Forms of Peer Victimization in Adolescence

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits (e.g., lack of empathy and guilt) differentiate a group of children at particularly high risk for engaging in aggressive behavior, notably bullying. However, little is known about whether youths with CU traits are at risk for being victimized by their peers. We examined the associations between trajectories of CU traits in childhood (between 7 and 12 years old) and peer victimization in adolescence (14 years old). The participants were drawn from the Twins Early Development Study, a longitudinal population-based study of twins born in England and in Wales. The trajectories of CU traits (i.e., stable high, increasing, decreasing and stable low) were identified through general growth mixture modeling. Four forms of peer victimization were considered: physical victimization, verbal victimization, social manipulation, and attacks on property. We found that youths with stable high levels, increasing levels, and decreasing levels of CU traits in childhood had higher levels of physical victimization in adolescence, not explained by other predictors at age 7 (e.g., conduct problems). Youths with increasing levels of CU traits, compared with the ones with stable low levels, also had higher levels of verbal victimization, social manipulation, and attacks on property. Our findings highlight the importance of distinct trajectories of CU traits in accounting for the experience of different forms of peer victimization. Youths with CU traits may benefit from bullying prevention programs, as they are likely to be the targets of peer victimization.

Fetal programming of children's obesity risk

Childhood obesity affects nearly 17% of children and adolescents in the United States. Increasing evidence indicates that prenatal maternal stress signals influence fetal growth, child obesity, and metabolic risk. Children exhibiting catch-up growth, a rapid and dramatic increase in body size, within the first two years of life are also at an increased risk for developing metabolic disorder and obesity. We evaluate the potential role of the maternal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and placental axis in programming risk for child obesity. This prospective longitudinal study measured placental corticotropin-releasing hormone (pCRH) and maternal plasma cortisol at 15, 19, 25, 30, and 37 gestational weeks and collected child body mass index (BMI) at birth, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months. Participants included 246 mothers and their healthy children born full term. Each child's BMI percentile (BMIP) was determined using World Health Organization (WHO) standards based on age and sex. Child BMIP profiles from birth to two years of age were characterized using general growth mixture modeling (GGMM). We evaluated whether fetal exposure to placental CRH and maternal cortisol are associated with BMIP profiles. Placental CRH at 30 gestational weeks was highly associated with both BMIP (p<.05) and weight (p<.05) at birth when accounting for gestational age at birth and used as a predictor in modeling BMIP profiles. Maternal cortisol was not associated with child BMIP. GGMM analyses identified four distinct BMIP profiles: typical, rapid increase, delayed increase, and decreasing (See Fig. 2). The typical profile comprised the majority of the sample and maintained BMIP across the first two years. The rapid and delayed increase profiles each exhibit a period of reduced body size followed by BMI catch-up growth. The rapid increase profile exhibited catch-up within the first 12 months while the delayed group showed an initial decrease in BMIP at 3 months and a dramatic increase from 12 to 24 months. The decreasing profile exhibited normal birth weight and BMIP followed by persisting, low BMIP. The members of the rapid and delayed increase profiles were exposed to the highest concentrations of placental CRH at 30 gestational weeks compared to those in the typical profile group (Fig. 3). Exposure to elevated placental CRH concentrations during the third trimester is associated with catch-up growth. An early period of small body size followed by rapid catch-up growth is a profile associated with increased metabolic risk and increased obesity risk. Our findings suggest that placental CRH exposure makes a unique contribution to fetal programming of obesity risk.

Two Aspects of the Rural-Urban Divide and Educational Stratification in China: A Trajectory Analysis.

Contextualized in China's social change of the past half-century, this paper develops the notion of dichotomous inequality to conceptualize the two aspects of China's rural-urban divide in educational inequality-the household registration system (hukou) assigns people to a top-bottom hierarchy, and the rural-urban schooling system institutionalizes unequal resource distribution and diverse school mission. Based on this conceptualization, we formulate a Chinese version of the maximally maintained inequality (MMI) hypothesis. We capitalize on individual educational history data from the China General Social Survey (CGSS) 2008 and conduct a trajectory analysis using the generalized mixture modeling to estimate the differential effects of the two aspects of rural-urban divide on educational inequality in China. Findings indicate that (1) the sorting mechanism of the rural hukou places rural-hukou people in the very bottom of educational stratification, (2) the penalty of attending rural pre-tertiary school increases with educational stages, and (3) there is a cumulative disadvantage of rural hukou and rural school. Overall, our findings attest to the Chinese-version MMI and the behind principle of inequality reproduction.

EPA-0186 – Trajectories of adolescent deliberate self-harm and the relationship to borderline personality pathology

The study examined the developmental trajectories of deliberate self-harm behavior (e.g. of non-suicidal self-injury, suicidality and substance use) in a community sample of 514 adolescents from 14.5 to 16.5 years of age. Data were taken from the German sample of the Saving and Empowering Young Lives in Europe study (SEYLE; Wasserman et al., 2010) and its consecutive follow-up assessments. Using general growth mixture modeling, distinctive classes for each self-harm behavior were identified. The high risk non-suicidal self-injury class as well as the high risk suicidality class demonstrated high initial values with a gradual decrease over adolescence. The substance use high risk class had a low initial value and presented acceleration with time. The high overlap between the three high-risk classes supports the notion that certain personality traits such as affective dysregulation or impulsivity may underlie these three behaviors. Compared to the low or moderate risk classes, individuals belonging to high risk classes revealed significantly higher scores in the SCID-II questionnaire for DSM-IV borderline personality disorder.

Racial/ethnic disparities in binge eating: disorder prevalence, symptom, presentation, and help-seeking among non-Latino Whites and Asian American groups

monitoring decreases. Despite the normative decline, drastic decreases in parental monitoring are associated with illegal substance use and delinquent behaviors. Much less is known about the relationship between parental monitoring and gambling, particularly gambling problems, which are associated with various adverse outcomes. This study explores the association between parental monitoring trajectories throughout early adolescence and levels of youth gambling behaviors, using a longitudinal sample of urban, primarily African American, youth. Methods: The longitudinal data came from a cohort followed up annually since first grade (n = 678, 53% male, 86% African American). This study focuses on the 586 participants (86% of the original cohort) who provided at least one wave of gambling data between ages 16 and 22. The South Oaks Gambling Screen and South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents assessed annual gambling, gambling frequency, and gambling-related problems. Frequent gamblers were those who gambled at least once per week. Twelve items assessed gambling-related problems (e.g., hiding evidence of gambling). Gamblers who reported at least 2 gambling-related problems were classified as those meeting the diagnostic criteria for at-risk/ problem gamblers. The Parental Monitoring Subscale of the Structured Interview of Parent Management Skills and Practices-Youth Version collected data on parental monitoring (PM) from ages 11–14, as reported by the youth. General growth mixture modeling identified distinct classes of PM trajectories. Logistic models examined the associations between those trajectories and gambling behaviors. Results: Two PM trajectories were identified: 1) “Stable” class (86.4%) began with a high level of PM at age 11 and remained steady through age 14; 2) “Declining” class (13.6%) began with a significantly lower level of PM at age 11 and also experienced a significant decline through age 14. While PM class membership was not associated with any gambling, the “Declining” class was associated with approximately twice the odds of any gambling problems and at-risk/problem gambling. Conclusion: The longitudinal trajectory of parental monitoring is significantly associated with any gambling problems and meeting the diagnostic criteria for at-risk/problem gambling. This study identifies a characteristic that future gambling prevention and intervention programs can target as past parenting interventions have been able to improve parental monitoring over time.

Impulsivity trajectories and gambling in adolescence among urban male youth

Building on the recent emerging literature on the impulsivity trajectory-gambling association, this study investigated the association between developmental trajectories of teacher-rated impulsivity in early adolescence (ages 11-15 years) and subsequent gambling and gambling problems (i.e. at-risk and problem gambling) by age 19. Prospective cohort design. Urban communities in Baltimore, Maryland. The sample consists of 310 predominately minority (87%) and low socio-economic status (SES) (70%) males followed from first grade to late adolescence. Impulsivity was measured using teacher ratings of classroom behavior. Self-reported gambling behavior was assessed using the South Oaks Gambling Screen-Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA). Results from a conventional growth model suggest that the intercept of the impulsivity development (as measured by the repeated assessments of impulsivity across the entire developmental period) was associated significantly with gambling. Results from a general growth mixture model evidenced two distinct trajectories: a high impulsivity trajectory (41% of the sample) and a low impulsivity trajectory (59% of the sample). Despite its non-significant association with any gambling, heterogeneity in impulsivity development was associated significantly with gambling problems. Specifically, being in the high impulsivity trajectory doubled the odds of meeting criteria for at-risk or problem gambling [odds ratio (OR) = 2.09, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 4.27)] and tripled the odds of meeting criteria for problem gambling (OR = 2.84, 95% CI: 1.02, 7.91). Development in impulsivity is associated strongly with problem/at-risk gambling in adolescence among urban male youth. Findings highlight the importance of distinguishing gambling problems from any gambling when evaluating programs aimed at reducing youth gambling problems through reducing impulsivity.

Adult Body Mass Index Trajectories and Sexual Orientation: The Nurses' Health Study II

Cross-sectional research has documented elevated prevalence of obesity in lesbian and bisexual women relative to heterosexual women, but little is known about disparities in longitudinal patterns in BMI change during adulthood. To examine sexual orientation-related disparities in individual BMI trajectories throughout adulthood. Data on BMI, sexual orientation, and sociodemographics were gathered prospectively from 1989 through 2005 from 90,713 U.S. women in the Nurses' Health Study II and examined in 2011 using general growth mixture modeling to identify BMI trajectories from ages 25 to 59 years. Multinomial logistic regression was used to determine whether sexual orientation was associated with BMI trajectory group membership. Four BMI trajectory groups were identified and labeled based on mean BMI within each group at baseline and final follow-up: Group 1: slow-weight-gain trajectory; Group 2: moderate-weight-gain trajectory; Group 3: rapid-weight-gain trajectory; and Group 4: obese-to-overweight trajectory. Lesbian and bisexual women showed consistently higher odds of membership in Groups 2-4 (adverse-weight-gain trajectories) versus Group 1 (the slow-weight-gain trajectory) relative to heterosexual women. Both lesbian and bisexual women were more likely than heterosexual women to experience adverse-weight-gain trajectories in adulthood. New research efforts are needed to understand and eliminate these pronounced disparities.

Longitudinal Variation in Adolescent Physical Activity Patterns and the Emergence of Tobacco Use

The objective of this investigation was to examine how variation in adolescent physical activity is related to smoking and alternative tobacco use. Adolescents (N = 1,384) completed a self-report survey every 6 months from ages 14- to 18-years old in a prospective study of health behaviors. The 8 waves of data were analyzed using General Growth Mixture Modeling (GGMM) RESULTS: GGMM identified five physical activity trajectories including stable higher (SHPA), decreased (DPA), stable regular (SRPA), curvilinear (CPA), and stable low (SLPA). Across 4 years, the likelihood of smoking was greater among adolescents in the DPA, SLPA and SRPA trajectories compared to adolescents belonging to the SHPA trajectory. Alternative tobacco use was greatest among adolescents in the DPA and SRPA trajectories. Adolescents with decreasing physical activity and even adolescents averaging an hour of physical activity a day (SRPA) are important groups to target for tobacco use prevention and intervention efforts.

Parent and Peer Links to Trajectories of Anxious Withdrawal From Grades 5 to 8

Individual differences in trajectories of anxious withdrawal were examined from Grades 5 to 8 across the transition to middle school in a community sample (N = 283), using General Growth Mixture Modeling. Three distinct pathways of anxious withdrawal were identified: low-stable (78%), high-decreasing (12%), and high-increasing (10%). In Grade 6, relative to the low-stable class, greater peer exclusion and more free time spent with mother predicted membership in the high-decreasing class; higher peer exclusion predicted membership in the high-increasing class. Within the high-increasing class, the growth of anxious withdrawal was predicted by lower parental autonomy-granting, less free time with mother, both nurturing and restrictive parenting, and greater peer exclusion. Results highlight the role of both parent–child relationship and peer difficulties in increasing the adjustment risk among youth who are anxiously withdrawn prior to the middle-school transition.

Predictors and outcomes of joint trajectories of callous–unemotional traits and conduct problems in childhood.

Callous-unemotional (CU) traits are associated with antisocial and delinquent behaviors in children and represent a potential risk factor for adult psychopathy. However, there is a paucity of longitudinal research that explores the development of these traits, their longitudinal association with conduct problems (CP), and their psychosocial predictors and outcomes. Using a large sample of children followed longitudinally from the Twins Early Development Study (N=9,578), we described the joint developmental trajectories of CU traits and CP during childhood (between ages 7 and 12) and examined the child- and family-level predictors (4 years old) and concomitant outcomes (12 years old) associated with the trajectories. The developmental trajectories were characterized with teachers' ratings of CU traits and CP from ages 7 to 12. Using general growth mixture modeling, we identified four trajectories of CU traits (stable high, increasing, decreasing, and stable low) and two trajectories of CP (high and low). Compared with the children who followed a low trajectory of CU traits and CP, those who followed a high trajectory of CU traits and CP had more negative child- and family-level predictors at 4 years (including CP, hyperactivity, negative parental discipline, and chaos in the home). Children with high or increasing levels of CU traits and concomitant high levels of CP presented the most negative outcomes at 12 years (including hyperactivity, peer problems, emotional problems, and negative parental feelings). Children with high CU traits and concomitant high levels of CP in childhood should be prioritized for targeted intervention.