General Aviation Pilots Research Articles

Enhancing General Aviation Safety: The Integration of Generative AI in Preflight Weather Planning

Artificial Intelligence (AI) permeates daily life and industries through enhanced machine learning, natural language processing, and computer vision. Generative AI, a significant advancement, mimics human-like text and makes data-driven decisions, particularly in generative AI applications. Exploring novel AI applications is crucial, such as using generative AI to aid General Aviation (GA) pilots in preflight weather planning, with the aim to enhance pilots’ awareness and reduce weather-related accidents. However, the rapid evolution of generative AI raises many concerns like volatility, security risks, and decision-making biases. Preflight weather planning is vital in aviation, with weather-related incidents comprising a significant portion of accidents. Despite advancements, GA pilots’ interpretation of weather information remains subpar. This paper examines how generative AI may have potential to assist GA pilots to perform preflight weather planning, while also addressing risks and suggesting ethical research directions.

Exploring perceptions of pilot licensing and training standards: a survey of Canadian student and licensed pilots.

This study investigates the perspectives of Canadian student and licenced pilots on general aviation pilot training and licencing practices. Employing a mixed-methods approach, this research critiques the reliance on flight hours as the sole competence metric and examines the alignment of existing practices with modern aviation's complexities. Findings reveal a divergence in opinions between novice and experienced pilots on flight hours' importance, with a consensus towards a competency-based evaluation model. The study identifies critical shortcomings in existing training practices, such as the challenge of integrating technology, fostering advanced skills, and efficiently utilising instructional resources. It suggests recommendations for regulatory enhancements, aiming to ensure training practices evolve in line with the changing requirements of aviation safety and technology. The conclusion calls for urgent reform, underlining the imperative for training adaptations that can prepare pilots to proficiently manage the complexities of contemporary airspace, thus safeguarding their proficiency and safety.

Is Declined Cognitive Function Predictive for Fatal Accidents Involving Aging Pilots?

Background. Civil aviation comprises airlines/charters and general aviation (GA). Currently, airlines are experiencing a pilot shortage, partly reflecting scheduled retirements mandatory for airline (but not GA) pilots aged 65 years, fueling a debate as to whether the retirement age should be increased. Herein, using 16–40 years-of-age aviators as a reference, we determined whether GA pilots aged 60+ years (i) incurred an elevated accident rate, employing, for the first time, age-tiered flight time as a measure of risk exposure and (ii) carried an excess risk for cognitive deficiency-related fatal accidents. Methods. Airplane accidents (2002–2016) involving Class 3 medical certificated pilots were per the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) databases. Age-tiered pilot risk exposure represented a summation of flight hours per Class 3 medical applications. Cognitive decline measures were per NTSB field codes. Statistical analyses employed Chi-Square, Mann–Whitney, logistic regression, and binomial tests. Results. Using flight hours as the denominator, the fatal accident rate for older pilots (41–80 years) was unchanged compared with aviators aged 16–40 years. In the logistic regression, no cognitive deficiency measure was predictive (p = 0.11, p = 0.15) for pilots aged 61+ years who were involved in fatal accidents. Conclusion. These findings question the necessity of an automatic disqualification of air transport pilots at 65 years of age.

Human Factors in General Aviation Loss of Control: Survey of Pilot Experiences

Inflight loss of control (LOC-I) is a major cause of general aviation (GA) accidents. Previous studies have identified LOC-I causes from sources such as the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) database. NTSB GA accident reports include limited detail on human factors. Getting pilots’ perspectives from other sources, such as surveys, may reveal insights into pilot actions and conditions. This study investigates the role of human factors in LOC-I by analyzing demographics in NTSB accidents and conducting a survey of pilots’ LOC-I experiences based on the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System framework. Note that 80% of the LOC-I events shared by the pilots involved pilot error, most of which were skill-based and decision errors. About one-quarter of pilots mentioned that their instructor had not prepared them well or taught them methods to recover from LOC-I. Several pilots mentioned that, because of their lack of LOC-I recovery training, they could not recover from LOC-I. The study helped in identifying specific pilot errors and issues in training that were not mentioned explicitly in the NTSB reports. Findings from the study may help improve training methods and operating procedures for GA pilots to prevent loss of control in the future.

Key Insights from Preflight Planning for Safety Improvement in General Aviation: A Systematic Literature Review

This study highlights the disproportionate number of fatal and non-fatal accidents in general aviation (GA) compared to airline carriers, emphasizing the need to investigate the contributing factors to these incidents. It identifies poor decision-making and a lack of situational awareness as key issues and presents a systematic literature review using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) method to analyze preflight information used by GA pilots. The findings underscore the significance of operational factors in ensuring a successful flight and suggest modifications to pilot license renewal processes, with an emphasis on the adoption of digital preflight tools. A new theoretical framework based on the operational factors identified is also introduced, which could serve as a foundation for future studies and interventions aimed at enhancing safety in general aviation.

Automated Spoken-to-Coded Pilot Weather Reports in General Aviation

A pilot weather report (PIREP) is a firsthand report of actual meteorological phenomena encountered by an aircraft in flight or on the ground. In general aviation (GA), PIREPs are a critical method of communicating weather information with pilots, controllers, and forecasters. However, GA pilots may find submitting PIREPs a cumbersome, manually intensive, and latent process. Automation of the radio PIREP submission process could lead to an increase in the quantity and quality (i.e., accuracy, timeliness, and usefulness) of GA PIREPs. This paper discusses the development and evaluation of a three-tier system to automatically convert spoken PIREPs to coded PIREPs using speech recognition, machine learning (ML), and natural-language-processing techniques. Specifically, this paper describes 1) the development, evaluation, and limitations of a trained commercial-of-the-shelf speech recognition system to generate text transcriptions of the spoken PIREPs, 2) an ML-based Named Entity Recognition model for segregating and labeling information from PIREP transcriptions, and 3) a final deterministic encoder to generate PIREP codes. If implemented in practice, this approach could significantly reduce interferences associated with submitting PIREPs, increase the number of PIREP submissions, improve the quality of PIREPs, and ultimately make flying safer for GA pilots.

Using problem-based exploratory training to improve pilot understanding of autopilot functions

Previous research indicated a need to improve pilot training with regard to understanding of autopilot logic and behavior, especially in non-routine situations. Therefore, we tested the effect of problem-based exploratory training on pilots’ understanding of autopilot functions. Using a moving-base flight simulator, general aviation pilots (n = 45) were trained to diagnose failures either without foreknowledge and guidance (exploratory group), without foreknowledge but with some guidance (exploratory-guidance group) or with foreknowledge and full guidance (control group). They subsequently performed six test scenarios in which their understanding of the effects of failures was tested by requiring them to deduce the failures and select autopilot modes that were still functioning. Those who received exploratory training with guidance were significantly more likely than the other groups to diagnose failures correctly. The exploratory training group also selected the most appropriate functioning autopilot modes significantly faster than the control group. The results suggest that exploratory training with an appropriate level of guidance is useful for gaining a practical understanding of autopilot logic and behavior. Exploratory training may help to improve transfer of training to operational practice, and prevent automation surprises and accidents.

Effects of distance flown on pilot decision making in continued flight into deteriorating weather conditions

Introduction: Continuing flight into adverse weather remains a significant problem in general aviation (GA) safety. A variety of experiential, cognitive, and motivational factors have been suggested as explanations. Previous research has shown that adverse weather accidents occur further into planned flights than other types of accident, suggesting that previous investment of time and effort might be a contributing factor. The aim of this study was to experimentally determine the effect of prior commitment on general aviation pilots’ decision-making and risk-taking in simulated VFR flights. Method: Thirty-six licensed pilots ‘flew’ two simulated flights designed to simulate an encounter with deteriorating coastal weather and a developing extensive cloud base underneath the aircraft as it crossed a mountain range. After making a decision to continue or discontinue the flight, pilots completed a range of risk perception, risk taking, and situational awareness measures. Results: Visual flight rules were violated in 42% of the flights. Prior commitment, in terms of distance already flown, led to an increased tendency to continue the flight into adverse weather in the coastal ‘scud running’ scenario. Continuing pilots perceived the risks differently and showed greater risk tolerance than others. These ‘bolder’ pilots also tended to be more active and better qualified than the others. Conclusions: There are undoubtedly multiple factors underlying any individual decision to continue or discontinue a flight. The willingness to tolerate a higher level of risk seems to be one such factor. This willingness can increase with time invested in the flight and also seems to be related to individual flight qualifications and experience. Practical Applications: All pilots might benefit from carefully structured simulator sessions designed to safely teach practical risk management strategies with clear and immediate feedback.

Deficient Aeronautical Decision-Making Contributions to Fatal General Aviation Accidents.

INTRODUCTION: General aviation (GA), mainly comprised of light (≤12,500 lb) aircraft, maintains an inferior safety record compared with air carriers. To improve safety, aeronautical decision-making (ADM) practices have been advocated to GA pilots since 1991. Herein, we determined the extent to which GA pilots disregard such practices.METHODS: Fatal accidents (1991-2019) involving private pilots (PPLs) in single-engine airplanes were identified (N = 1481) from the National Transportation Safety Board AccessR database. Of these, deficient go/no-go and in-flight ADM-related mishaps were scored using the PAVE (pilot, aircraft, environment, external pressure)/IMSAFE (illness, medicine, stress, alcohol, fatigue, eating) and PPP (perceive, process, perform) models, respectively. Statistical testing used Poisson distributions, Fisher exact tests, and Mann-Whitney U-tests.RESULTS: Of the 1481 accidents, 846 were identified as deficient ADM-related. Electing to depart into a hazardous environment (PAVE), disregarding wellness (IMSAFE), and poor aircraft familiarity (PAVE) represented the most common categories (54%, 21%, and 20%, respectively) of errant go/no-go ADM. A 64% decline in fatal accidents related to errant go/no-go decisions for the environment category was evident over the 30-yr period, with little decrements in the other domains. Within the errant environment-related category accidents, the decision to depart into forecasted adverse weather (e.g., degraded visibility, icing, thunderstorms) constituted the most prevalent subcategory (56%, N = 195). Surprisingly, of this subcategory, accidents were overrepresented by over nine- and threefold for instrument-rated PPLs disregarding icing and thunderstorm forecasts, respectively.CONCLUSION: With little decrement in ADM-related accidents in the pilot, aircraft, and external pressure domains, new strategies to address such deficiencies for PPLs are warranted.Boyd DD, Scharf MT. Deficient aeronautical decision-making contributions to fatal general aviation accidents. Aerosp Med Hum Perform. 2023; 94(11):807-814.

Comfort Study of General Aviation Pilot Seats Based on Improved Particle Swam Algorithm (IPSO) and Support Vector Machine Regression (SVR)

Little work has been carried out to predict the comfort of aircraft seats, a component in close contact with the human body during travel. In order to more accurately predict the nonlinear and complex relationship between subjective and objective evaluations of comfort, this paper proposes a prediction method based on the Improved Particle Swarm Algorithm (IPSO) and optimized Support Vector Machine Regression (SVR). Focusing on the problems of the too-fast convergence and low accuracy of the traditional particle swarm algorithm (PSO), the improved particle swarm algorithm (IPSO) is obtained by linearly decreasing the dynamic adjustments of inertia weight ω, self-learning factor c1, and social factor c2; then, the penalty parameter C and kernel function parameter σ of SVR are optimized by the IPSO algorithm, and the comfort prediction of IPSO-SVR is established. The prediction accuracy of IPSO-SVR was 94.00%, the root mean square error RMSE was 0.37, the mean absolute value error MAE was 0.32, and the goodness of fit R2 was 0.92. The results show that the optimized IPSO-SVR prediction model can more accurately predict seat comfort under different angles and backrest tilt angles and can provide reference and research value for related industries. The results show that the optimized nonlinear prediction model of IPSO-SVR has higher accuracy, and its prediction method is feasible and generalizable, meaning it can provide a reliable basis for the prediction of seat comfort under different angles and backrest inclinations, as well as providing reference and research value for related industries.

Qualitative Analysis of General Aviation Pilots’ Aviation Safety Reporting System Incident Narratives Using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System

ABSTRACT NASA's Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS) gathers data from voluntary aviation safety reports for nonfatal accidents and incidents. These reports are a valuable resource in identifying unsafe occurrences and hazardous situations in the aviation industry. A tool known as the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS), initially developed for military use, has proven useful for root cause analysis of human causes in aviation accidents and incidents, including in commercial contexts. This research study utilizes HFACS to classify the ASRS safety reports to identify key indicators in General Aviation (GA) non-fatal accidents and incidents. Qualitative data analysis reveals relationships between incidents and causal factors, indicating 53% of incidents to be perceptual errors, 32% decision errors, and 26% skill-based errors. Prevalent preconditions for these errors include crew resource management (53%), physical environment (32%), and technological environment (16%). The study aligns with previous research findings, suggesting that crew resource management is a common factor in both GA incidents and commercial and military aviation. While GA pilots may make different types of errors, such discrepancies are not prevalent in the voluntarily reported data.

Prediction of general aviation pilots in China based on supply and demand

This paper selects the data of civil aviation pilot licenses, flight instructors and general aviation pilot processed by HP Filtering Technology to construct the VAR equation and predict the supply of general aviation pilot in China in the next three years. Compared with the demand predicted by linear regression equation, it is found that in the next three years, the number gap of pilots in China will reach 879, 856 and 1190 respectively. Finally, this paper analyzes the results combined with the reality, and according to the VAR model, gives reasonable suggestions from the two aspects of strengthening the master's qualifications and encouraging civil aviation or military pilots to change jobs.

Density Altitude: Climatology of Daily Maximum Values and Evaluation of Approximations for General Aviation

Abstract Density altitude (DA) is an aviation parameter that helps determine specific aircraft performance characteristics for the expected atmospheric conditions. However, there are currently no detailed graphical tools for general aviation (GA) pilot education demonstrating the spatial and temporal variation of DA to help improve situational awareness. In this study, the fifth-generation European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate (ERA5) dataset is used to construct a 30-yr monthly climatology of DA for the conterminous United States. Several DA characteristics are also investigated, including the effect of humidity on DA, the determination of reasonable worst-case conditions, and the applicability of two DA rules of thumb (ROTs). Maximum values of DA (worst aircraft performance) occur during July, reaching 3600 m over areas with high surface elevations. Humidity, while tertiary to the effects of temperature and pressure, causes the DA to increase from their dry values by more than 140 m as far north as the U.S.-Canada border. The dry DA ROT performs well for all conditions outside of strong tropical cyclones, where GA flights would not be expected. The ROT to correct for the effects of humidity performs well except in high elevations or when the dewpoint temperatures fall outside the applicable range of ≥5°C. When applied outside this range, in some situations, DA errors can be greater than if no humidity correction were applied. Therefore, a new ROT to correct for humidity is introduced here that extends the applicable dewpoint temperature range to ≥−28°C and reduces errors in estimated DA. Significance Statement The impacts of density altitude on aircraft performance have led to numerous general aviation (GA) accidents. This study helps GA pilots better understand the spatial and temporal variability in density altitude, thereby increasing their situational awareness during flight planning. This study also evaluates commonly used approximations to estimate density altitude, so pilots can understand the situations where these approximations are (in)applicable. Results suggest the need for a humidity correction approximation when dewpoint temperatures are <5°C, which is introduced in this study.

Charting a Path Through the Storm: General Aviation Weather Training Recommendations

For general aviation (GA) pilots, weather was the primary contributing factor for 25% of accidents between 1982 and 2013 (Fultz & Ashley, 2016). All GA pilots must complete the same certification exam and requirements, however not all GA pilots are receiving the same depth of training. Depending on their flight school, pilots-in-training may be lacking important opportunities to practice applying weather theory to aviation. Attending to this gap in training by providing more opportunities to practice applying their weather knowledge may help reduce the number of weather-related accidents in GA. This paper outlines certification requirements and guidelines to become a private pilot, clarifies weather-knowledge requirements, outlines how pilots currently learn their weather, and makes training recommendations to potentially reduce the number of weather-related accidents in GA.

Human in the Loop Evaluations of A Taxi Assistance Tool for Pilots

Runway Incursions (RIs) - the improper presence of an aircraft on a runway - have proven difficult to reduce below current levels. RIs are mostly the result of pilot deviations (PDs), and most pilot deviations are made by general aviation (GA) pilots. MITRE is developing a taxi assistance concept to create taxi guidance and conformance technology with the hope of reducing RIs caused by lost, distracted, or confused pilots. This research is primarily focused on smaller Class D airports where GA traffic is higher, and controllers do not have advanced technologies in the tower cab. Three studies were conducted evaluating pilot interaction with MITRE's taxi assistance application, as implemented as an iPad application. Study results provided design guidance and evidence that these applications could reduce the likelihood of RIs caused by pilots. In this paper we will briefly review each study.

Adherence to Selected Air Carrier (Airline) Operational Regulations for Improved General Aviation Flight Safety in Degraded Visibility

Introduction: General aviation largely comprises fixed-wing piston-engine light aircraft (,12,500 lbs). Unfortunately, this civil aviation sector suffers a vastly inferior safety record when compared with air carriers (60- to 80-fold higher accident rate). Additionally, such mishaps pose a considerable financial burden to both the affected family and the United States: US$1.64–4.64 billion annually. We hypothesize that this safety disparity partly reflects more stringent operational regulations for air carriers. Herein, we determined whether compliance with six selected air carrier regulations could potentially reduce general aviation accidents in degraded visibility (IMC) the majority of which are fatal. Methods: Accidents (2005–2019) were identified from the National Transportation Safety Board Access database. Fleet data for rate calculations were per the general aviation survey and the Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Statistics used Poisson distributions. Results: Of 219 general aviation accidents in IMC, 43 (20%) could potentially have been averted had one, or more, of the selected air carrier regulations been complied with. The largest percentage (62%) of the 43 mishaps were due to pilots operating contrary to the air carrier regulation specifying takeoff or landing weather minimums. The second largest group related to more conservative weather minimums required for an inexperienced airline pilot-in-command, eschewed in 19% of preventable general aviation IMC mishaps. Conclusions: Alignment with the aforementioned air carrier operational rules could potentially blunt the IMC accident rate (by 20%) for general aviation. Practical Applications: Adherence to the aforementioned air carrier regulations should be advocated to general aviation pilots operating in IMC.

Exploring General Aviation Pilot Perspectives on Proximate Urban Air Mobility Operations

Urban air mobility is a vision for new aviation operations that leverage advances in flight automation, electrical propulsion, and vertical flight technologies to address passenger and cargo needs for faster on-demand, short-range air transport. Enabling urban air mobility operations in the National Airspace System will require significant coordination across the aviation and transportation communities, including the general aviation community. The urban air mobility operating vision will introduce new and complex interactions to these pilots, driving a need for coordinated operating procedures that align with the needs of each community. This paper summarizes an exploratory human-in-the-loop experiment performed at The MITRE Corporation to explore general aviation pilot perspectives on proximate urban air mobility operations. Pilot participants used a certified flight deck simulator to fly a route in an environment with various urban air mobility traffic configurations. Objective and subjective measures were collected to understand general aviation pilot perspectives. Results indicate pilot preference for a limited number of corridors within a segment of airspace even at higher urban air mobility traffic rates. Acceptability of other urban air mobility operating concepts explored in this research study decreased with an increase in urban air mobility traffic rates.

Instrument flying infrequency and weather decision-making for general aviation pilots -implications for flight safety in degraded visibility

IntroductionInstrument-rated private pilots (PPL-IFRs) are trained to fly in degraded visibility (where visual references are lost) and, towards maintaining proficiency, required to complete 6 instrument approaches in as many months. Nevertheless, operations in such weather carry an elevated risk of a fatal accident. Two hypotheses were advanced: (i) the majority of PPL-IFRs complete fewer than 6 instrument approaches/6 months and (ii) that a subset of such aviators still depart into such weather. Methods: Instrument approaches for a group of light aircraft in single PPL-IFR ownership (aircraft/owners) in the state with the largest count of single piston engine aircraft (Texas) was determined using Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast (ADS-B) data. Departure aerodrome weather flight category was per the Iowa State University database. IMC accidents were identified from the National Transportation Safety Board database and rates determined using GA fleet time. Statistical testing used Poisson Distribution, Chi-Square and Mann-Whitney U tests. Results: Over the Aug 2020-Mar 2021 period, 1,684 flights involving 106 aircraft/owners were ADS-B-tracked. Of these aircraft/owners, 81.2% completed < six approaches (median = 1.5). Importantly, for aircraft/owners completing < six approaches in the preceding 6 months, 24% departed into obscuration. Conclusions: This study demonstrates that, for the state most populous for reciprocating engine aircraft, the majority of aircraft in single PPL-IFR ownership fail to complete 6 in-flight instrument approaches/6 months. Nevertheless, some of these aircraft/owners elect to undertake flights in degraded visibility. From a practical perspective, PPL-IFRs unable to maintain instrument currency should be cautioned on the risks of operating in degraded visibility.

GA Pilot Perceptions of Speech Systems to Transcribe and Submit PIREPs

Flying into hazardous weather can be a cause of aviation incidents and accidents. Accidents involving general aviation (GA) pilots who are not instrument rated who fly into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) are often fatal. Pilot weather reports (PIREPs) can increase the accuracy and timeliness of current and forecasted weather conditions. They are an essential tool used by pilots to avoid flying into hazardous weather as well as meteorologists to develop and update aviation forecasts. Thus, a large number of accurate PIREPs with the best source of current weather coming from pilots and air traffic controllers are needed. Pilots are often unable to make PIREPs because of workload in the cockpit or because it is cumbersome to leave the air traffic control (ATC) frequency to contact flight the flight service station (FSS). Currently, air traffic controllers must solicit and disseminate PIREPs. However, air traffic controllers’ primary obligation is to provide traffic separation and traffic alerts. During poor weather, when PIREPs are needed the most, controllers are often too busy to solicit and disseminate PIREPs (NTSB, 2017a). This study administered a descriptive survey to inquire about how likely pilots would be to use a speech recognition system (SRS) to transcribe and submit PIREPs automatically while flying in three distinct flight regimes: instrument flight rules (IFR), visual flight rules (VFR) with flight following, and VFR without flight following. The survey employed cross-section design and included Likert scale questions. For each flight regime, additional information was obtained through an open-ended follow-up question. The Likert scale responses indicated that pilots were neutral about using a SRS to transcribe and submit PIREPs in each flight regime.Spradley’s (1979) domain analysis was used to identify common themes and patterns from the open-ended responses. Major findings from flying IFR were that pilots found it easier to speak directly to air traffic control, or pilots were too busy to submit PIREPs while flying IFR. Major findings from flying VFR with flight following were that pilots thought it was easier to report PIREPs directly to air traffic control or to a flight service station, and it was more accurate to report PIREPs directly to an aviation professional. However, they were willing to try a SRS. Major findings from flying VFR without flight following were that pilots wanted the opportunity to review a PIREP submission for accuracy and were willing to try the system. Significant differences were determined by making a comparison between the three groups.

Enhancing the Aeronautical Decision-Making Knowledge and Skills of General Aviation Pilots to Mitigate the Risk of Bird Strikes: A Quasi-Experimental Study

Enhancing the Aeronautical Decision-Making Knowledge and Skills of General Aviation Pilots to Mitigate the Risk of Bird Strikes: A Quasi-Experimental Study