Frog Genus Research Articles

A new Asian leaf litter toad of the genus Leptobrachella (Amphibia, Anura, Megophryidae) from central south China.

A new species of the Asian leaf litter toad genus Leptobrachella from central south China is described. Molecular phylogenetic analyses, based on mitochondrial 16S rRNA and nuclear RAG1 gene sequences indicated the new species as an independent clade in the genus. The new species could be distinguished from its congeners by a combination of the following characters: body of medium size (SVL 29.2-34.2 mm in 15 adult males and 34.4-43.1 mm in seven adult females); distinct black spots present on flanks; toes rudimentary webbed, with wide lateral fringes; ventral belly white with distinct nebulous brown speckling on ventrolateral flanks; skin on dorsum shagreened with fine tiny granules or short ridges; iris copper above, silver below; heels overlapped when thighs are positioned at right angles to the body; tibia-tarsal articulation reaches the middle eye; dorsal surface of tadpole semi-transparent light brown, spots on tail absent, keratodont row formula I: 3+3/2+2: I; call series basically consist of repeated long calls, at dominant frequency (5093 ± 412 Hz).

An inordinate fondness for inconspicuous brown frogs: integration of phylogenomics, archival DNA analysis, morphology, and bioacoustics yields 24 new taxa in the subgenus Brygoomantis (genus Mantidactylus) from Madagascar

Malagasy frogs of the subgenus Brygoomantis in the mantellid frog genus Mantidactylus currently comprise 14 described species of mostly brown, riparian frogs. Data from DNA barcoding suggested that the diversity of this subgenus is dramatically underestimated by current taxonomy. We here provide a comprehensive revision of this subgenus. We use hybrid-enrichment based DNA barcode fishing to obtain mitochondrial DNA fragments from the name-bearing type material of 16 of the 20 available names for members of this subgenus, and integrate these into a genetic dataset consisting of 1305 individuals sampled across Madagascar. By thus assigning the nomina to genetic lineages, we can confidently establish synonyms, revalidate old names, and describe the remaining diversity. We take an integrative approach to our descriptions, drawing together genetics, morphometrics and morphology, and bioacoustics for assignment. We also provide a robust phylogenomic hypothesis for the subgenus, based on 12,818 nuclear-encoded markers (almost 10 million base pairs) for 58 representative samples, sequenced using a hybrid-enrichment bait set for amphibians. Those data suggest a division of the subgenus into eight major clades and show that morphological species complexes are often paraphyletic or polyphyletic. Lectotypes are designated for Rana betsileana Boulenger, 1882; Rana biporus Boulenger, 1889; Rana curta Boulenger, 1882; Mantidactylus ambohimitombi Boulenger, 1918; Mantidactylus tripunctatus Angel, 1930; and Rana inaudax Peracca, 1893. For several other nomina, previous authors had considered a certain syntype as holotype; this has been seen as lectotype designation by implication, which, however, is ambiguous according to the provisions of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature. Hence, we validate a previous lectotype designation by implication for Limnodytes ulcerosus Boettger, 1880 by explicitly designating the same individual as lectotype. In one other such case, that of Mantidactylus brauni Ahl, 1929, we deviate from previous authors and designate a different specimen as lectotype. We revalidate Rana inaudax Peracca, 1893 as Mantidactylus inaudax (Peracca, 1893) bona species, and Mantidactylus tripunctatus Angel, 1930 bona species. The identities of three further species (M. ambohimitombi, M. biporus, M. tricinctus) are largely redefined based on new genetic data. By designating the lectotype of Rana aluta (MZUT An725.1) as the neotype of Mantidactylus laevis Angel, 1929 we also stabilize the latter nomen (as junior synonym of M. alutus) whose original type material is lost. Based on DNA sequences of its lectotype, we consider Mantidactylus brauni Ahl, 1929 as junior synonym of M. ulcerosus (rather than M. biporus). We formally name 20 new species and four new subspecies: M. ambohimitombi marefo ssp. nov., M. ambohimitombi miloko ssp. nov., M. mahery sp. nov., M. steinfartzi sp. nov., M. incognitus sp. nov., M. jonasi sp. nov., M. katae sp. nov., M. kortei sp. nov., M. riparius sp. nov., M. fergusoni sp. nov., M. georgei sp. nov., M. jahnarum sp. nov., M. marintsoai sp. nov., M. grubenmanni sp. nov., M. gudrunae sp. nov., M. augustini sp. nov., M. bletzae sp. nov., M. brevirostris sp. nov., M. eulenbergeri sp. nov., M. glosi sp. nov., M. stelliger sp. nov., M. manerana sp. nov., M. manerana fotaka ssp. nov., and M. manerana antsanga ssp. nov. This leaves Mantidactylus subgenus Brygoomantis with 35 described species and six subspecies (including nominate subspecies). Based on our taxonomic revision, we discuss (i) the importance of definitive assignment of historical names via archival DNA analysis; (ii) the relevance of the subspecies category to name geographic variation within species; (iii) the value of molecular characters in formal species diagnoses in taxa with substantial individual variation of morphology; (iv) the use of phylogenomic approaches for taxonomy, by confirming that some morphologically similar taxa are not each other’s closest relatives, and in several cases belong to entirely different major subclades within Brygoomantis, thus facilitating lineage diagnosis; and (v) the need to interpret genetic distances in a probabilistic framework rather than using fixed thresholds, where higher distances confer a higher likelihood of genetic incompatibilities across the genome and thus completion of speciation.

Maternal Provisioning of Alkaloid Defenses are Present in Obligate but not Facultative Egg Feeding Dendrobatids.

Poison frogs sequester alkaloid defenses from a diet of largely mites and ants. As a result, frogs are defended against certain predators and microbial infections. Frogs in the genus Oophaga exhibit complex maternal care, wherein mothers transport recently hatched tadpoles to nursery pools and return regularly to supply developing tadpoles with unfertilized (nutritive) eggs. Developing tadpoles are obligate egg feeders. Further, female O. pumilio and O. sylvatica maternally provision their nutritive eggs with alkaloid defenses, providing protection to their developing tadpoles at a vulnerable life-stage. In another genus of poison frog, Ranitomeya, tadpoles only receive and consume eggs facultatively, and it is currently unknown if mothers also provision these eggs (and thus their tadpoles) with alkaloid defenses. Here, we provide evidence that mother frogs of another species in the genus Oophaga (Oophaga granulifera) also provision alkaloid defenses to their tadpoles. We also provide evidence that Ranitomeya imitator and R. variabilis eggs and tadpoles do not contain alkaloids, suggesting that mother frogs in this genus do not provision alkaloid defenses to their offspring. Our findings suggest that among dendrobatid poison frogs, maternal provisioning of alkaloids may be restricted to the obligate egg-feeding members of Oophaga.

Diversification of the Pristimantis conspicillatus group (Anura: Craugastoridae) within distinct neotropical areas throughout the Neogene

Determining the relative importance of dispersal and vicariance events across neotropical regions is a major goal in biogeography. These events are thought to be related to important landscape changes, notably the transition of Amazonia toward its modern hydrological configuration ca. 10 million years ago. We investigated the spatio-temporal context of the diversification of one of the major lineages of Pristimantis, a widespread and large genus of direct-developing Neotropical frogs. We gathered a spatially and taxonomically extensive sampling of mitochondrial DNA sequences from 754 Pristimantis gr. conspicillatus specimens, which led to delimiting 75 Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs). Complete mitogenomes of 35 of these OTUs were assembled and collated with two nuDNA loci to reconstruct a time-calibrated phylogeny. We identified five major clades that diverged around the Oligocene-Miocene transition and that are largely restricted to distinct Neotropical regions i.e. Western Amazonia (P. conspicillatus clade), the Brazilian Shield (P. fenestratus clade), the Atlantic Forest (P. ramagii clade), the Guiana Shield (P. vilarsi clade) and the northern Andes (P. nicefori clade). The majority of the diversification events within these clades occurred in-situ from the early Miocene onward. Yet, a few ancient dispersal/vicariance events are inferred to have occurred among trans-Andean forests, the Atlantic Forest, the Brazilian and the Guiana Shields, but almost none in the last 10 Ma. The radical landscape transformations during the Miocene caused by the Andean orogeny and hydrological barriers such as the Pebas System and the subsequent transcontinental configuration of the Amazon drainage is a likely explanation for the isolation of the different clades within the P. gr. conspicillatus.

A new species of the genus Leptobrachella (Anura, Megophryidae) from northwestern Guangdong Province, China

The genusLeptobrachellais a species-rich genus of megophrid frog. Rapid discovery of many new species within this genus emphasizes the importance of regional research. In this study, we describe a new species ofLeptobrachella,Leptobrachella verrucosasp. nov., from northwestern Guangdong Province, China, based on a combination of molecular and morphological data. A key including congeners from the same province, namelyL. laui,L. liui,L. mangshanensis,L. shimentaina, andL. yunkaiensis, is provided.

Integration of Ecology, Larval Phenotypes, and Mate-Recognition Signals with Molecular and Morphological Data Indicate Taxonomic Inflation in Nyctibatrachus (Anura: Nyctibatrachidae)

Taxonomic studies over the past decade of the endemic Night Frog genus Nyctibatrachus (originally described in 1882) from Peninsular India have more than tripled, from 11 at the turn of this century to 36 by 2017. Despite these revisionary contributions, it is still challenging for field biologists to identify night frog species reliably, due to a near-complete absence of diagnostic, discrete character states or trait values. Worse, many questionably diagnosed night frog species' status has ostensibly been “supported” by phylogenies derived from sparsely sampled gene-trees that are based on a single locus or a handful of markers—with topology and arbitrary genetic distance thresholds of 3–6% used to support new species descriptions. We sought to re-evaluate and validate the species boundaries of six currently nominated species of Nyctibatrachus of the aliciae group (N. aliciae, N. periyar, N. deveni, N. pillaii), N. vasanthi, and N. poocha clade using a comprehensive integrative taxonomic approach that integrates classical taxonomy, molecular species delimitation analysis, statistical analysis of morphological characters of adults and larvae, analyses of bioacoustics, and natural history information. Our results indicate that recent descriptions of Nyctibatrachus deveni, N. periyar, and N. pillaii represent cases of taxonomic inflation (over-splitting), because the evidence cited in support of their recognition is irreproducible, subjective, and devoid of strong statistical support. We demonstrate the need for multidimensional species delimitation approaches in the celebrated Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot paleo-endemic genus Nyctibatrachus and suspect that this concerning trend of over-splitting amphibian species based on limited data and untenable support may be applicable to other amphibian groups.

Heterogeneous Evolution of Sex Chromosomes in the Torrent Frog Genus Amolops.

In sharp contrast to birds and mammals, in numerous cold-blooded vertebrates, sex chromosomes have been described as homomorphic. This sex chromosome homomorphy has been suggested to result from the high turnovers often observed across deeply diverged clades. However, little is known about the tempo and mode of sex chromosome evolution among the most closely related species. Here, we examined the evolution of sex chromosome among nine species of the torrent frog genus Amolops. We analyzed male and female GBS and RAD-seq from 182 individuals and performed PCR verification for 176 individuals. We identified signatures of sex chromosomes involving two pairs of chromosomes. We found that sex-chromosome homomorphy results from both turnover and X–Y recombination in the Amolops species, which simultaneously exhibits heterogeneous evolution on homologous and non-homologous sex chromosomes. A low turnover rate of non-homologous sex chromosomes exists in these torrent frogs. The ongoing X–Y recombination in homologous sex chromosomes will act as an indispensable force in preventing sex chromosomes from differentiating.

Phylogeographic inference of Sumatran ranids bearing gastromyzophorous tadpoles with regard to the Pleistocene drainage systems of Sundaland

Rivers are known to act as biogeographic barriers in several strictly terrestrial taxa, while possibly serving as conduits of dispersal for freshwater-tolerant or -dependent species. However, the influence of river systems on genetic diversity depends on taxa-specific life history traits as well as other geographic factors. In amphibians, several studies have demonstrated that river systems have only minor influence on their divergence. Here, we assess the role of the paleodrainage systems of the Sunda region (with a focus on the island of Sumatra) in shaping the evolutionary history of two genera of frogs (Sumaterana and Wijayarana) whose tadpoles are highly dependent on cascading stream habitats. Our phylogenetic results show no clear association between the genetic diversification patterns of both anurans genera and the existence of paleodrainage systems. Time-calibrated phylogenies and biogeographical models suggest that these frogs colonized Sumatra and diversified on the island before the occurrence of the Pleistocene drainage systems. Both genera demonstrate phylogenetic structuring along a north–south geographic axis, the temporal dynamics of which coincide with the geological chronology of proto Sumatran and -Javan volcanic islands. Our results also highlight the chronic underestimation of Sumatran biodiversity and call for more intense sampling efforts on the island.

A new genus and species of frog from the Kem Kem (Morocco), the second neobatrachian from Cretaceous Africa.

Neobatrachia, a clade representing the majority of extant anuran diversity, is thought to have emerged and diversified during the Cretaceous. Most of the early diversification of neobatrachians occurred in southern Gondwana, especially the regions that are today South America and Africa. Whereas five extinct neobatrachians have been described from the Cretaceous of South America in the last decade, only one is known from Africa. This difference in the known extinct diversity is linked to the lack of well-preserved specimens, understudy of fragmentary remains, and lack of known Cretaceous sites in Africa. Study of fragmentary anuran remains from Africa could allow for the identification of previously unknown neobatrachians, allowing for a better understanding of their early diversification. We reanalysed several previously described anuran specimens from the well-known Kem Kem beds, including using CT-scanning. Through our osteological study, we determined that several cranial bones and vertebrae represent a new hyperossified taxon for which we provide a formal description. Comparison to other hyperossified anurans revealed similarities and affinity of this new taxon with the neobatrachians Beelzebufo (extinct) and Ceratophrys (extant). Phylogenetic analyses supported this affinity, placing the new taxon within Neobatrachia in an unresolved clade of Ceratophryidae. This taxon is the oldest neobatrachian from Africa, and reveals that neobatrachians were already widespread throughout southern Gondwana during the earliest Late Cretaceous.

An unexpected new red-bellied Stumpffia (Microhylidae) from forest fragments in central Madagascar highlights remaining cryptic diversity.

The Madagascan endemic subfamily Cophylinae in the family Microhylidae, is an example of a taxonomic group for which much is still to be discovered. Indeed, the cophyline frogs present a large portion of Madagascar's cryptic and microendemic amphibian diversity, yet they remain understudied. A new red-bellied species of the microhylid frog genus Stumpffia is described from the central plateau of Madagascar. Visual encounter surveys in Ambohitantely and Anjozorobe in 2019 and 2020 identified this previously unknown Stumpffia species, which closely resembles Stumpffiakibomena known from Andasibe in the east. Stumpffialynnae sp. nov. adds another species to the red-bellied species complex, differing from S.kibomena by genetic differentiation in the mitochondrial 16S rRNA gene (3.6-3.9%) and distinct nuclear RAG1 haplotypes, as well as strongly by its advertisement call. The new species is known from across Ambohitantely Special Reserve and Anjozorobe Angavo protected area, but is known only from one complete specimen and eight individual tissue samples. Based on the rarity of the species, the small number of locations in which it has been found, and its disappearing forest habitat, its IUCN Red List classification is suggested as "Endangered". This species is the first Stumpffia described from Madagascar's central plateau, highlighting the importance of conserving the remnant forest fragments in this area and the ongoing need to survey and protect this threatened habitat type.

Confirmed report of the Aniqiao Torrent Frog, Amolops aniqiaoensis (Anura: Ranidae), from India, with additional distributional records for two other Indian pecies of Amolops

The torrent-dwelling frog genus Amolops is represented by 13 species in India, including type localities for 11 species. Based on recent field surveys and subsequent phylogenetic studies of specimens collected, we confirm the presence of A. aniqiaoensis Dong, Rao, and Lü 2005, which was described from Aniqiao, Xizang, China, in India. We also report a range extension of a recently described species, A. adicola Patel, Garg, Das, Stuart, and Biju 2021, with a further note on A. indoburmanensis Dever, Fuiten, Konu, and Wilkinson 2012.

Diversification of tiny toads (Bufonidae:Amazophrynella) sheds light on ancient landscape dynamism in Amazonia

AbstractMajor historical landscape changes have left significant signatures on species diversification. However, how these changes have affected the build-up and maintenance of Amazonia’s megadiversity continues to be debated. Here, we addressed this issue by focusing on the evolutionary history of a pan-Amazonian toad genus that has diversified throughout the Neogene (Amazophrynella). Based on a comprehensive spatial and taxonomic sampling (286 samples, all nominal species), we delimited operational taxonomic units (OTUs) from mitochondrial DNA sequences. We delimited 35 OTUs, among which 13 correspond to nominal species, suggesting a vast underestimation of species richness. Next, we inferred time-calibrated phylogenetic relationships among OTUs based on complete mitogenomic data, which confirmed an ancient divergence between two major clades distributed in eastern and western Amazonia, respectively. Ancestral area reconstruction analyses suggest that the Andean foothills and the Brazilian Shield region represent the ancient core areas for their diversification. These two clades, probably isolated from one other by lacustrine ecosystems in western Amazonia during the Miocene, display a pattern of northward and eastward dispersals throughout the Miocene‒Pliocene. Given the ecological association of Amazophrynella with non-flooded forests, our results reinforce the perception that ancient Amazonian landscape changes had a major impact on the diversification of terrestrial vertebrates.

Rapid karyotypic evolution with high diploid number variation in a rare genus of bromeligenous frogs.

Bromeligenous Crossodactylodes is a leptodactylid genus closely related to Paratelmatobius and Scythrophrys. The diploid number in all karyotyped species of these two latter genera is 24, which diverges from the modal diploid number (2n = 22) in the family. Here, we analyzed three species of Crossodactylodes and found karyotypes with 2n = 30, 2n = 32, and 2n = 36, diploid numbers that have not been reported in any other diploid leptodactylid species to date. Reconstruction of the ancestral chromosome number indicated that the diploid number changed from 22 to 24 in the common ancestor of Crossodactylodes, Paratelmatobius, and Scythrophrys, and that progressive increases in diploid number have occurred in Crossodactylodes. The large number of telocentric/subtelocentric chromosomes in karyotypes with higher diploid numbers raises the possibility that centric fissions may have occurred during the evolution of Paratelmatobiinae. Three metacentric chromosomes, probably involved in fission events, were inferred to be present in the common ancestor of all species of Crossodactylodes, but in C. bokermanni. Chromosome mapping of the satellite DNA PcP190 suggests homology between one arm of metacentric chromosome 1 of Crossodactylodes sp. 3 and telocentric chromosome 2 of C. itambe, supporting one of the presumed centric fission events.

Contextual, Taphonomic, and Paleoecological Insights from Anurans on Tiwanaku Sites in Southern Peru

We examine the processes that resulted in the deposition of bones of at least three anuran genera on four archaeological sites associated with the Tiwanaku culture occupied between 700–1100 CE in the Moquegua Valley of far southern Peru. We review archaeological data and ethnographic accounts of Andean peoples using frogs and toads for food and in rain-quest rituals. Anuran bones are common in prehispanic cemeteries, but far less common in habitational and ceremonial sites. The quantity of anuran remains in certain cemeteries is anomalous in comparison to other archaeological sites in the valley and to Tiwanaku sites in other geographic settings. We conclude that anurans are most common where abandoned below-ground rock-covered tombs are likely to have been reused by nesting owls, and propose that most anuran remains in archaeological contexts in Moquegua are the result of predation. We consider environmental, cultural and taphonomic explanations and posit that the abundance of anuran remains relates to the 14th-century Miraflores ENSO event. This event generated increased rainfall in the desert, creating conditions favorable for frogs and toads, and predation by owls. We also advocate for the use of fine-screening to recover small-sized animal remains, such as anurans, that can be used to understand taphonomic processes and paleoenvironmental conditions.

Discovery of a new species of Euphlyctis (Anura: Dicroglossidae) from the western coastal plains of peninsular India.

The aquatic frog genus Euphlyctis is now considered under two separate genera- Euphlyctis Fitzinger and Phrynoderma Fitzinger, with four valid species in each genus, respectively. The current distribution range of the genus Phrynoderma is restricted to peninsular India and Bangladesh, with a probability of availability in Sri Lanka. The genus Euphlyctis has a wide range of distribution from the Arabian Peninsula and the South Asian countries, with a few historical descriptions treated as junior synonyms of the species Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis in India. A new species of skittering frog, Euphlyctis jaladhara sp. nov. is described here from the surroundings of the Thattekad Bird Sanctuary of Kerala, India, which has a predominant distribution in the western coastal plains of peninsular India and some parts of the Western Ghats. The new species has distinct morphological characters and a high genetic distance that distinguishes it from the sympatric species. Discussions are made concerning the validity of the species E. ghoshi and E. kalasgramensis.

A new toad species of the genus Brachytarsophrys Tian & Hu, 1983 (Anura, Megophryidae) from Guizhou Province, China.

BackgroundThe toads of the genus Brachytarsophrys Tian & Hu, 1983 are distributed in southern China, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos and northern Thailand. Seven species of the genus have been recognised, of which five of them are known from China so far.New informationBrachytarsophrysqiannanensis sp. nov., a new species of the short-legged toad genus is here described from southern Guizhou Province, China. Diagnostic characters of the new species are illustrated and comparisons with its congeners are provided. Its validity is also affirmed by its distinct mitochondrial gene sequence divergence with all congeners and its monophyly recovered in the mitochondrial gene-based phylogenetic analyses.

Landscape Genetics and Species Delimitation in the Andean Palm Rocket Frog (Aromobatidae, Rheobates)

The complex topography of the species-rich northern Andes creates heterogeneous environmental landscapes that are hypothesized to have promoted population fragmentation and diversification by processes such as vicariance or local adaptation. Previous phylogenetic work on the palm rocket frog (Anura: Aromobatidae: Rheobates spp.), endemic to midelevation forests of Colombia, suggested that valleys were important in promoting divergence between lineages. In this study, we first evaluated previous hypotheses of species-level diversity, then fitted an isolation-with-migration (IM) historical demographic model, and tested two landscape genetic models to explain genetic divergence within Rheobates: isolation by distance and isolation by environment. The data consisted of two mitochondrial and four nuclear genes from 24 samples covering most of the geographic range of the genus. Species delimitation by Bayesian Phylogenetics and Phylogeography recovered five highly divergent genetic lineages within Rheobates, among which few to no migrants are exchanged according to IM. We found that isolation by environment provided the only variable significantly correlated with genetic distances for both mitochondrial and nuclear genes, suggesting that local adaptation may have a role in driving the genetic divergence within this frog genus. Thus, genetic divergence in Rheobates may be driven more by variation among the local environments where these frogs live rather than by geographic distance.

A new species of Pristimantis (Anura: Strabomantidae) with a colourful venter from the cloud forests of Colombian western Andes.

The Terrarana frogs of the genus Pristimantis are acknowledged for their direct development into froglets and for their astonishing species richness, which renders it the anuran genus with the highest number of species. We describe a new species of Pristimantis from the northwestern Andes of Colombia. The species is distributed from an area between 2750-2900 m.a.s.l. in the Mesenia-Paramillo Nature Reserve. Pristimantis postducheminorum sp. nov. differs from other, phylogenetically related, or similar resembling Pristimantis taxa by a striking yellow coloration in the ventral area, dark grey coloration in the concealed surfaces of the thighs and groin, absence of nuptial pads, presence of lateral fringes on fingers, presence of vomerine odontophores triangular in shape from the ventral view, and absence of dorsolateral folds. Molecular phylogenetics place this new species close to P. satagius and therefore within the P. ridens species group. The new species is also phylogenetically close and sympatric with the recently described P. ferwerdai, which further indicates that the Pristimantis fauna has been notoriously underestimated in the Colombian western cloud forests, a fact that should be considered in assessments of environmental impact.

Ecology, conservation status, and phylogenetic placement of endemic Pristimantis frogs (Anura: Craugastoridae) in Trinidad and Tobago and genetic affinities to northern Venezuela

AbstractTrinidad and Tobago are home to three endemic species in the anuran genus Pristimantis, of which two (Pristimantis charlottevillensis and Pristimantis turpinorum) occur in Tobago alone and the third (Pristimantis urichi) is present on both islands. Earlier, the IUCN assessed the conservation status of these species as: P. urichi, Endangered (EN); P. charlottevillensis, Least Concern (LC); P. turpinorum, Vulnerable (VU). However, these assessments were based on very little field‐based evidence. Here, we present survey results which contributed to reassessments as LC, VU and Data Deficient for these three species, respectively. Despite the close proximity of Trinidad to northern Venezuela, the islands do not share any Pristimantis species with the mainland, which holds a rich endemicity of Pristimantis regionally. In this study, we used genetic sequencing from several island populations and compared them to northern Venezuelan endemics to assess genetic divergence for the first time. The time tree analyses found that only the northern Tobago species P. turpinorum is closely related to mainland Pristimantis, with a genetic split dating to the Late Miocene, suggesting a vicariant event of mainland and island species. Pristimantis urichi, although identical between the two islands, remains highly divergent from the mainland species. Similar results were found for P. charlottevillensis. In addition, there was a high level of divergence between P. urichi and P. charlottevillensis. These findings indicate different island colonization events by different lineages. Sequencing other Venezuelan species remains pivotal to unravel the complexity of the colonization episodes in the region, likely influenced by the changing topography and multiple connection and isolation episodes of the islands by eustatic sea‐level changes.

The first record of Medog Gliding Frog Rhacophorus translineatus Wu, 1977 (Anura: Rhacophoridae) from Chhukha District, Bhutan

Rhacophorus is a genus of tree frogs in the family Rhacophoridae commonly referred to as parachuting or gliding frogs, distinguished by extensive digital webbing. A rare species, Rhacophorus translineatus Wu, 1977, was recorded for the first time in Bhutan. Information on morphological characters, geographical distribution, habitat and natural history notes is provided.