Gender Survey Research Articles

Cash support vs. tax incentives: The differential impact of policy interventions on third births in contemporary Hungary

Following steep falls in birth rates in Central and Eastern European countries during the economic and institutional restructuring of the early 1990s, governments made substantial efforts to stop or at least reduce the fertility decline. In Hungary, parents with three or more children could benefit from specific new policy measures: the flat-rate child-rearing support paid from the youngest child's third to eighth birthdays (signalling recognition of stay-at-home motherhood) and a redesigned and upgraded tax relief system. However, the success of these policy measures, if any, is difficult to detect in aggregate statistics. Analysing data from the Hungarian Generations and Gender Survey, we rely on event history methods to examine the policies’ effects on third birth risks, especially among different socio-economic groups. The results indicate that while the child-rearing support increased third birth risks among the least educated, the generous tax relief had a similar effect for parents with tertiary education.

Partners' Educational Characteristics and Fertility: Disentangling the Effects of Earning Potential and Unemployment Risk on Second Births.

This study investigates the link between the educational characteristics of partners in heterosexual relationships and their transition to second births, accounting for the selection into parenthood by fitting multi-level event history models. We compare the fertility of Beckerian unions characterized by gender-role specialization with the fertility of dual-earner couples, characterized by the pooling of incomes. Focusing on the economic aspect of the educational degree, in a first step, we estimate the earning potential and unemployment risks by field and level of education, country and sex using European Labour Force Surveys. Next, we link these results with Generation and Gender Survey data from six countries and model couples' transition to second births. We find evidence in support of both the pooling of resources family model (notably in Belgium) and the Beckerian gender-role specialization model. The effects of the earning potential and unemployment risk attached to his and her field of education tends to vary by country context.

ADolescents gEnder surVey, rEsponsible coupLes evaluatiOn, and capacity building Project in India (DEVELOP): a study protocol.

Gender-based violence against women is a serious concern in India. This affects the health and wellbeing of victims and their dependents. Published evidence has documented a variety of reasons for such violence in Indian societies, paving a pathway to design, implement, and evaluate intervention models to address this issue. DEVELOP is a research study designed by UK and Indian research teams to plan future projects to address gender-based discrimination and violence against women and girls in India. This study protocol provides detailed information on the objectives, research methods, data collection, storage, analysis, and dissemination plans of the DEVELOP. The first component is a survey of adolescent boys and girls from rural areas of Maharashtra state of India to understand their gender equality related knowledge and beliefs. The insight gathered will be used to design interventions targeted at adolescent populations through future research and development programmes. Secondly, an evaluation of the 'Responsible Couples' project will be conducted to assess its success and challenges, and to design suitable programme activities and models. The 'Responsible Couples' project is implemented in 40 villages of Maharashtra state to improve relationships in married couples, prevent violence against women, intervene during violence, and to provide support services for women and their family members. Research findings will be disseminated though public engagement events in India, international conferences, and peer reviewed publications. This will impact on the policy and work models of Indian partners to plan future project investments. Research findings will be also useful for local government authorities and non-government agencies striving to advance gender equality.

The Social Stratification of Choice in the Transition to Adulthood

AbstractThe occurrence and timing of major demographic decisions in the transition to adulthood is strongly stratified, with young adults with a high socio-economic status (SES) background usually experiencing many of these events later than young adults with a low SES background. To explain this social stratification, we outline a theoretical framework in which social stratification affects choice in the transition to adulthood through three, potentially reinforcing, pathways: stratified socialization, stratified agency, and stratified opportunity. We test our framework against longitudinal data from two waves of the Generations and Gender Surveys for Austria, Bulgaria, and France. We find evidence for the importance of all three pathways. Furthermore, processes differ little by gender, age and country context.

A Study on the Behavior Analysis and Support of Students with School Life Maladjustment

이 연구는 학교부적응 학생의 행동 분석을 통하여 적절한 지원 방안을 마련하기 위하여 2014년 12월 부터 2015년 2월말까지 3개월간 수행되었다. 연구방법으로는 문헌연구를 기초로 조사 도구를 개발하였 으며, 이 도구를 활용하여 학교부적응 학생을 대상으로 설문조사를 시행하였다. 학생들의 학교부적응은 다양한 원인에서 비롯되지만 특히 학교 내부의 문제에 기인한다면 학교문화 개선과 교육적 지원이 시급 하다. 이 연구에서는 ○○○도 관내 고등학생 520명을 층화군집표집으로 선정하여 ○○○도교육청의 행정적인 도움을 받아 학교부적응 실태 조사를 광범위하게 수행하여 분석하였다. 학교에서의 일상적인 부적응 인식, 행위를 빈도와 평균을 비교하여 학교부적응 현상의 특징을 살펴보았다. 또한 부적응학생들의 개인특성, 관계적 특성이 부적응 행동과 교사와 관계, 학교교칙과의 관계에 미치는 영향력을 일원변량분 석(One-Way ANOVA)으로 알아보았다. 학교부적응 학생의 행동을 분석하기 위하여 성별, 계열별, 남녀 공학별 특징을 조사한 결과는 다음과 같다. 첫째, 성별에 따른 부적응 행동 분석 결과에서는 학교규칙 부적응 행동이 성별의 차이가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 남학생이 여학생보다 학교규칙 부적응 행동이 더 높게 나타나는 것으로 나타났다. 둘째, 일반계고등학교가 특성화고등학교보다 교사-학생간의 관계도 높고, 학급풍토도 좋다는 결과를 알 수 있다. 셋째, 남녀공학 유무에 따른 개인적 특성 분석 결과에서는 부적응 행동 경험이 남녀공학 유무에 따라 차이가 있는 것으로 나타났다. 부적응 행동 경험에서 남녀공학 아닌 학교가 남녀공학인 학교보다 더 높게 지각하는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 남녀공학 아닌 학교가 남녀공학인 학교보다 성적 수준도 높고, 부적응 행동 경험을 적게 한다는 결과를 알 수 있다. 이 연구를 통하여 학교 에서 학생들의 부적응 행동 경험을 최소화 할 수 있는 적극적이고 다양한 방안들이 마련되어야 할 것으로 보인다. 이 연구의 분석 결과 부적응 행동 전체에 미치는 영향으로 부적응 행동 경험이 가장 크게 작용하는 것으로 나타났다. 따라서 부적응 행동 경험을 최소화할 수 있도록 학교에서는 교사의 관심과 기대, 격려, 상담 보상 및 강화를 위한 노력이 뒤따라야 할 것이다.The study was conducted for three months from December 2014 to the end of February 2015, in order to draw up appropriate support measures through behavioral analysis of students with poor school performance. Research tools were developed based on the research of literature, and surveys were conducted on students who were eligible for school assignments. Students school aptitude is caused by a variety of reasons, but especially by problems foundinside the school. In this study, ○○ selected 520 high school students as a group listedof stratification groups and analyzed them thoroughly by conducting an extensive survey on the situation of School Talisman Adaptation with administrative help from the ○○ Provincial Office of Education. We looked at the characteristics of the phenomenon of school maladjustment by comparing the frequency and average of daily maladjustment in schools. Inaddition, the influence of individuals and relational characteristics of unqualified students on inappropriate behavior and relationships with teachers and school rules was recognized as a One-Way ANOVA. The results of a survey of gender, family and coeducational characteristics for analyzing the behavior of students with poor school aptitude are as follows. First, the analysis of inappropriate behavior by gender indicates that school rule maladjustment behavior has differences in gender. Second, the results show that general-level high schools have higher teacher-to-student relationships than specialized high schools, and their class-style habits are also good. Third, the analysis of individual characteristics according to coeducational status shows that the experience of maladjustment behavior varies depending on coeducational status. Inadequate behavior experience shows that non-male schools are later than coeducational ones.

Fertility Intentions and Their Realization in Couples: How the Division of Household Chores Matters.

Most research on Europe indicates that a gender-balanced division of family work tends to increase childbearing probabilities, but empirical results vary substantially. The present article proposes explanations for this observed discrepancy. It develops prior research further by (1) studying short-term fertility intentions and their realization within the subsequent 4 years, (2) analyzing the role of the spouses’ satisfaction with the division for the effects that the division may have on childbearing, (3) proving a mediation by relationship satisfaction, and (4) considering gender as well as parity as moderators. Using data from two waves of the Generations and Gender Survey, we show that the division of work affects childbearing intentions. We find that the effect (a) depends on the spouses’ satisfaction with the division, (b) is partly moderated by relationship satisfaction, and (c) varies by parity. The division of household labor, however, seems of less importance for the realization of childbearing intentions.

Grandmothers and Non-grandmothers in the Polish Labor Market: The Role of Family Issues

Drawing on the debates regarding work–family reconciliation in later life, we examine the extent to which the labor market position of grandmothers and nongrandmothers can be explained by their varied family situations. The data for this study comes from the Generations and Gender Survey for Poland and includes 5,999 women aged 45+ years. We use multinominal logistic regression models to explore the link between different family situations and labor market withdrawal into unemployment, sick/disability leave, and retirement. Our results indicate that neither caring for older parents nor living with children has significant effects on women’s labor activity. However, living with a disabled person reduces the chances for women’s employment significantly. In addition, women who have grandchildren have lower chances for being employed as compared with those without grandchildren. We discuss these findings in relation to work–family balance policies and research.

Minority Stress, Activism, and Health in the Context of Economic Precarity: Results from a National Participatory Action Survey of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Gender Non-Conforming Youth.

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and gender non-conforming (LGBTQ & GNC) youth experience more economic hardship and social stress than their heterosexual and cisgender peers. However, the ways that LGBTQ & GNC youth resist these damaging social factors and the corresponding implications for their health have not been addressed. Data were analyzed from a national participatory survey of LGBTQ & GNC youth ages 14-24 (N=5,860) living in the United States. Structural equationmodels indicated that economic precarity was associated with experiences of health problems. This association was mediated by the negative influence of minority stress on health as well as by activism, which had a positive association with health. Findings suggest that minority stress explanations of health inequalities among LGBTQ & GNC youth can benefit from including a focus on economic precarity; both in terms of its deleterious impact on health and its potential to provoke resistance to structural oppression in the form of activism.

Are Mothers and Daughters Most Important? How Gender, Childhood Family Dissolution and Parents’ Current Living Arrangements Affect the Personal Care of Parents

The study examines adult children’s propensity to provide personal care to older parents in Sweden by gender of adult child, parental breakup in childhood and parent’s living arrangements. Data are from the Swedish Generations and Gender Survey from 2012/2013. OLS regression analyses examined personal care separately for mother and fathers. Adult daughters are more likely than sons to provide personal care to older mothers and fathers. Parental breakup in childhood does not lead to differences in personal care. The only exception being that daughters who experience breakup provide more care for their mothers. Children, especially daughters, help lone parents more often than other parents, but children’s care provision does not differ for parents living with the other parent and re-partnered parents. Gender of adult child and parent’s living arrangements operate in slightly different ways regarding care provided for mothers and fathers, and living arrangements represent a central predictor for whether children provide filial care. Particularly, the dominant kinship pattern is care provided from daughters to mother and through the mother’s line and to parents in vulnerable situations. The study discusses the results in relation to intergenerational solidarity theory, matrilineal care system and policy outlooks.

Risk Factors Associated With Childhood Stunting in Rwanda: A Secondary Analysis of the 2014 Nutrition, Markets and Gender (NMG) Survey

Childhood stunting can have negative health, social, and economic outcomes. In 2015, 37.9% of children under the age of five were stunted in Rwanda. This study aimed to understand the risk factors associated with stunting specific to Rwanda in order to inform effective interventions.The analysis found higher odds of stunting among the children of mothers who had no education compared to those with secondary education (OR: 2.1, 95% CI: 1.34-3.36), who did not take sufficient quantities of food during the pregnancy (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.07-1.65) or did not consume a diverse diet during pregnancy (OR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.12-1.73). Children living in households with two or more children under two years of age (OR: 2.4, 95% CI: 1.35-2.50), born with low birth weight (OR: 2.8, 95 CI: 1.67-4.27), born preterm (OR: 4.1, 95 CI: 1.96-8.70), not consuming animal proteins (OR: 1.7 CI: 1.49-2.02) and not drinking treated water (OR: 1.6, CI: 1.07-2.23) all have higher odds of developing stunting. Children living in households with low dietary diversity also had higher odds of stunting (OR: 2.2 CI: 1.23-3.88).The results of the analysis suggested that women should be educated to modify their feeding behavior. Educating women can potentially influence their decision-making related to antenatal care (ANC) service attendance and to their own as well as their children’s nutrition needs. Appropriate birth spacing should be encouraged. Providing nutritional supplements to mothers at ANC appointments, increasing access to diverse food groups, and providing nutritional care for babies with low birth weight are potential interventions to address the issue of childhood stunting in Rwanda.

Fertility Intentions and Views on Gender Roles: Russian Women in Estonia from an Origin-destination Perspective

In this article we investigate fertility intentions of Russian women in Estonia from an origin-destination perspective. Russian migrants to Estonia and their descendants are compared with women in the sending and host countries in order to identify similarities and differences in intended transitions to first, second and third births. The study is based on the Estonian and Russian Generations and Gender Surveys, which were conducted in 2004/2005, and employs logistic regression models. The dependent variables are intentions to become a mother, to have a second child, or to have a third child. The hypotheses for the study are mainly derived from the adaptation, cultural maintenance, and selection (characteristics) perspectives. We also incorporate attitudes towards gender roles into the models, which have proven to be a salient factor in shaping childbearing intentions, but have seldom been considered in studies of migrant fertility.Our results lend support to both the adaptation and cultural maintenance perspectives. In accord with the latter, the similarity between the childbearing intentions of Russian migrants and their descendants in Estonia and those of their counterparts in Russia suggests that socialisation to the ethnic subculture has prevailed over the influence of the host society. We attribute this outcome to contextual features that have retarded integration processes. By contrast, we observe that proficiency in the host country language, residence in areas where the host population constitutes a large majority and having a native partner significantly contribute to the adaptation of migrants’ intentions to have another child to those of the host population. These results provide support to the adaptation argument. Finally, our study reveals a positive association between egalitarian views on gender roles and women’s intentions to have another child. However, variation in gender role attitudes accounts for a relatively minor part of the difference in intended fertility between the groups addressed in this study.* This article belongs to a special issue on migrant fertility.

Childbearing intentions in a low fertility context: the case of Romania

This paper applies the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to find out the predictors of fertility intentions in Romania, a low-fertility country. We analyse how attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control relate to the intention to have a child among childless individuals and one-child parents. Principal axis factor analysis confirms which items proposed by the Generation and Gender Survey (GGS 2005) act as valid and reliable measures of the suggested theoretical socio-psychological factors. Four parity-specific logistic regression models are applied to evaluate the relationship between the socio-psychological factors and childbearing intentions. Social pressure emerges as the most important aspect in fertility decision-making among childless individuals and one-child parents, and positive attitudes towards childbearing are a strong component in planning for a child. This paper also underlines the importance of the region-specific factors when studying childbearing intentions: planning for the second child significantly differs among the development regions, representing the cultural and socio-economic divisions of the Romanian territory.

From intentions to births: paths of realisation in a multi-dimensional life course

The adult lives of women and men are shaped by a wide range of choices and events pertaining to different life domains. In the literature, however, pregnancy intentions are typically studied in isolation from other life course intentions. We investigate the correspondence of birth intentions and outcomes in a life course cross-domain perspective that includes partnership, education, work, and housing. Using longitudinal data from the Generations and Gender Surveys, we examine the matching processes of individuals' birth intentions with subsequent outcomes in Austria, Bulgaria, France, Hungary, and Lithuania. The results show that the intention to change residence is directly correlated with having a child among men and women living in a union, and that the intention to enter a partnership is correlated with childbearing among single men, but not among single women. Furthermore, we find that the intention to change jobs is inversely correlated with an intended childbirth, while it is directly correlated with an unintended childbirth. These findings suggest that the transition paths from birth intentions to birth outcomes should encompass a multi-dimensional life course perspective.

The Demography of Multigenerational Caregiving: A Critical Aspect of the Gendered Life Course

Multigenerational caregiving is important because it affects social and economic outcomes. Existing studies usually exclude theoretically and empirically important aspects—emotional care and horizontal care—that may systematically underestimate gender differences. In this study, we comprehensively describe caregiving by gender and age and examine how sensitive estimates are to the inclusion of directions and types of care. Using the Generations and Gender Survey (GGS) in Europe (N = 114,147), we find that women are more likely to provide care than men across the life course, and gender gaps are largest during critical periods for human capital accumulation. Significant gender gaps in favor of more women providing care are found in most countries, especially when emotional caregiving is included, but in some countries, more men provide care at the oldest ages. These findings highlight how measuring caregiving well is critical to understanding the gendered life course.

Generasjoner imellom: Holdninger til familiens ansvar øst og vest i Europa

Abstract: Between generations: Attitudes towards family responsibilities in the East and the West of Europe The article addresses the strength and character of family responsibility norms in Eastern and Western Europe. The strength is measured by the level of support for filial and parental responsibilities (i.e., adult children’s obligations towards older parents and vice-versa) and the character is indicated by the priority given to the older or the younger generation. For the analyses, we employ data from thirteen Eastern and Western European countries participating in the Generations and Gender Survey. In general, family norms are stronger in the East than in the West, but it is difficult to establish where to draw a dividing line. The contrast between the two extremes, Norway and Sweden in the north-west and Georgia in the south-east, is striking. The remaining countries line up quite close along the geographical diagonal (from Scandinavia to Georgia). The character of the norms is less clearly distributed – whereas almost all countries in Eastern Europe give priority to the older generation, the picture in the West is more mixed. The results partly confirm earlier conclusions about east-west differences in family responsibility norms, but adding more countries to the analyses has revealed a more complex and ambiguous picture than presented in previous studies.

Et Øst-Vest-skille for eldres livskvalitet i Europa? En sammenligning av ensomhet og depressive symptomer i 12 land

Abstract: An East-West divide in late-life wellbeing in Europe? A comparative study of 12 countries This study explores late-life loneliness and depression in European countries, noting the role of micro-level differences in socioeconomic status, health, and social variables. Findings from cross-sectional, nationally representative data from 12 countries and 36,000 individuals in the Generations and Gender Survey show a marked East–West divide among older but not among younger adults. Among older adults (aged 60–80) loneliness and depression are as much as three to four times more prevalent in Eastern European (20–40%) than in Northwest European countries (10–15%). These patterns reflect economic, social, and societal issues which in turn affect the conditions for active and healthy aging. There is considerable variation among Eastern European countries, correlating with macro-level economic development and welfare spending. Generous welfare states seem to offer a buffer against, or postpone, the risk of late-life depression and loneliness. Cultural factors may also play a role: because of high expectations as to strong family and community ties, Eastern Europeans may have a lower loneliness threshold than other Europeans.

Glass ceilings and stone floors: an intersectional approach to challenges UK geographers face across the career lifecycle

ABSTRACTWhile there has been a steady growth of women working in geography in UK universities since the mid-Twentieth Century, there are continuing challenges in gendered career progression and professional interactions within the contemporary discipline. These range from problems associated with employment precarity and inflexible work practices, life choices and obligations in the domestic arena, discrimination and bullying, to less tangible gendered norms and cultures in the workplace. This paper discusses these challenges and inequalities in the light of a brief overview of sector-wide statistical data on appointments by gender and career-stage and with the analysis of some 250 in-depth responses to a nationwide qualitative survey of gender and career experience in UK universities (Maddrell, Avril, Kendra Strauss, Nicola J Thomas, and Stephanie Wyse. 2016. “Mind the Gap: Gender Disparities Still to Be Addressed in UK Higher Education Geography.” Area 48 (10): 48–56). While the term ‘glass ceiling’ still has significant relevance, findings show a more complicated picture which also includes ‘stone floors’ and stumbling blocks. It also shows how career experience varies by institution and individual: challenges in career progression can be compounded by institutional protocols and intersectional factors, and vary with career stage. The intersection of early-career job precarity, reproductive decisions and associated family responsibilities were particularly highlighted in this study. These ‘pinch points’ in career development disproportionately affect, but are not limited to, female early career scholars. Early career progress may be stalled in mid-career in multi-staged promotional systems such as that in UK universities; some from minorities face compound barriers; men with caring responsibilities may face prejudice. The paper concludes with suggested strategies for change, highlighting the importance of individual university and department protocols and practices; line manager and other senior colleagues’ attitudes and leadership in creating workplaces with an equality-driven ethos and structures that allow individuals to flourish.

Subjective quality of life of informal caregivers aged 50–69 in Poland

Providing informal care to adults, especially elderly people, may affect many aspects of caregivers’ life, such as: physical and mental health, financial situation, social contacts, etc. Supporting dependent seniors is associated to a higher level of stress, burden and depression as well as higher mortality. The main purpose of this paper is to analyse the relationship between caregiving for adults and the subjective quality of life among Poles aged 50–69. We took into account not only the fact of providing care to adult people, but also its beginning, continuation and ending between waves. We assumed that subjective quality of life may be expressed by two variables: one describing life satisfaction, and the second one – loneliness. We used the panel subsample from the Generation and Gender Surveys (GGS) carried out in Poland in 2010/2011 and in 2014. We found a negative effect of stopping caregiving between waves on wellbeing of women-carers, which may be related to the loss of a close person. Moreover, providing care for a longer period of time increases loneliness, which confirms that providing support to others may lead to isolation and smaller social networks.

Short-term fertility intentions and their realisation in Poland

Previous studies identified large differences between countries in the extent to which childbearing intentions are realised. Failure to realise an intention to become a parent was found to be particularly common in the post-socialist countries. In this paper we examine whether similarly low rates of realisation of fertility intentions can be found in Poland. We use two waves of the Polish Generations and Gender Survey (GGS-PL), conducted in 2010/2011 and 2014/2015. We first describe fertility intentions of Polish women and men as declared at the survey’s first wave. Next, we examine whether the short-term childbearing intentions expressed at wave 1 were followed by an actual birth by the second round of the data collection. For the respondents who did not get a child between waves 1 and 2, we analyse the stability of their fertility plans. We find that approximately 35% of the respondents who at wave 1 intended to have a child in the next three years actually had one by wave 2. Both realization and stability of fertility intentions varied markedly by gender and parity.

Atitudes face às licenças parentais em Portugal

As políticas públicas em matéria de licenças para cuidar de filhos menores sofreram alterações importantes nas últimas décadas. O objetivo deste artigo é analisar as atitudes da população portuguesa face às licenças parentais com base no inquérito ISSP sobre família e género de 2014. Partindo de várias perspetivas teóricas, identificam-se os fatores que influenciam as atitudes face à duração e à partilha das licenças. Os resultados mostram o impacto do contexto institucional (regime legal atual), do contexto normativo e do posicionamento social. Analisam-se os desfasamentos entre políticas e preferências e discutem-se as implicações dos resultados.