Gender-stereotypical Beliefs Research Articles

Seeing is believing: Exposure to counterstereotypic women leaders and its effect on the malleability of automatic gender stereotyping

Two studies tested the conditions under which social environments can undermine automatic gender stereotypic beliefs expressed by women. Study 1, a laboratory experiment, manipulated exposure to biographical information about famous female leaders. Study 2, a year-long field study, took advantage of pre-existing differences in the proportion of women occupying leadership positions (e.g., female professors) in two naturally occurring environments—a women’s college and a coeducational college. Together, these studies investigated: (a) whether exposure to women in leadership positions can temporarily undermine women’s automatic gender stereotypic beliefs, and (b) whether this effect is mediated by the frequency with which female leaders are encountered. Results revealed first that when women were in social contexts that exposed them to female leaders, they were less likely to express automatic stereotypic beliefs about their ingroup (Studies 1 and 2). Second, Study 2 showed that the long-term effect of social environments (women’s college vs. coed college) on automatic gender stereotyping was mediated by the frequency of exposure to women leaders (i.e., female faculty). Third, some academic environments (e.g., classes in male-dominated disciplines like science and math) produced an increase in automatic stereotypic beliefs among students at the coed college but not at the women’s college—importantly, this effect was mediated by the sex of the course instructors. Together, these findings underscore the power of local environments in shaping women’s nonconscious beliefs about their ingroup.

Achievement in Math and Science: Do Mothers' Beliefs Matter 12 Years Later?

Past research has indicated an association between parents' beliefs and adolescent children's self-perceptions of ability and has shown the importance of accounting for parents' gender-stereotyped beliefs when examining boys' and girls' self-perceptions of math-science ability. The current study extends these findings by examining the longitudinal relations between mothers' earlier gender stereotypes and perceptions and adolescents' later math-science achievement beliefs and career choices. As predicted, mothers' earlier perceptions of their adolescents' abilities were related to adolescents' math-science self-efficacy 2 years after high school, with adolescents' self-perceptions of math ability during 10th grade mediating the relation with mothers' perceptions. Moreover, mothers' earlier predictions of their children's abilities to succeed in math careers were significantly related to later career choices.

Relations of Parents’ Beliefs to Children’s Motivation in an Elementary Physical Education Running Program

Using achievement goal theory and the expectancy-value model of achievement choice as theoretical frameworks, this study examined relationships between parents’ beliefs and their children’s motivation in an elementary physical education running program. Participants included 102 parents and their children (49 boys; 53 girls) in the third and fourth grades. The parents completed questionnaires assessing their achievement goals, competence beliefs, task values, and gender stereotypic beliefs about running. Children’s persistence/effort was assessed by the number of laps run/walked over the year-long running program. Performance was measured by the timed mile run. Results indicated that only parents’ competence/value beliefs were predictive of their children’s persistence/effort and mile run performance. Gender stereotypic beliefs influenced achievement goals the parents adopted for their children. Findings provided empirical support for the importance of parental beliefs for children’s motivation in physical activity.

Gender Differences in Writing Motivation and Achievement of Middle School Students: A Function of Gender Orientation?

The aim of this study was to determine whether gender differences in the writing motivation and achievement of middle school students (N = 497) are a function of gender-stereotypic beliefs rather than of gender. Girls reported stronger writing self-efficacy, writing self-concept, self-efficacy for self-regulation, value of writing, and task goals, and they received higher grades in language arts. Boys reported stronger performance-approach goals. All gender differences favoring girls in writing motivation and achievement were rendered nonsignificant when feminine orientation beliefs were controlled. Findings suggest that a feminine orientation is adaptive in the area of writing, whereas a masculine orientation is beneficial when escorted by a feminine orientation. Results are interpreted from the perspective of A. Bandura's (1986) social cognitive theory.

Children's Gender-Typed Preferences for Musical Instruments: An Intervention Study

This study investigated the influence of exposure to counter gender-stereotypic role models on children's gender-typed preferences for six musical instruments (piano, trumpet, violin, drums, guitar, flute). 357 children (aged 7-8 years) from three clusters of schools ranked their preferences for learning to play the six instruments and gave their gender-stereotyped beliefs about the instruments. Intervention concerts were performed at two of the three clusters of schools. Cluster 1 received concerts with gender-consistent role models (i.e., female playing flute, male playing drums); Cluster 2 received concerts with gender-inconsistent role models; Cluster 3 did not receive concerts (control schools). Instrument preferences were measured again immediately after the concerts. Results indicated an immediate impact of providing a counter-stereotypical role model on preferences for perceived "own-sex appropriate" instruments. Girls expressed less preference for the piano after observing a male musician playing the instrument. Boys ranked the guitar less favourably after they saw a female musician playing the guitar. In line with previous research, girls indicated greater interest in the piano, flute and violin than boys, whereas boys had a stronger preference for trumpet, guitar and drums than girls. Both girls and boys had similar ideas about which instruments would be played by either sex. Results are discussed with reference to social psychological theory of gender-related behaviour.

Career Choice and Adjustment Issues from a Gender Role Perspective

Career education in schools has helped to enhance the career choices of women by providing information about options and challenging gender stereotypical beliefs about the world of work. However, issues concerned with career adjustment have been neglected. It is increasingly being recognised, however, that the entry of women into new fields of work is not enough. The question is how to keep women, with their knowledge, skills and experience, in the workforce once they have entered it. This issue is the core focus of this case study.

Computer Attitudes, Gender and Exploratory Behavior: A Developmental Study

Three studies were conducted which examined computer attitudes, and the effect of particular gender views on exploratory behavior. In the first study, preschool children were interviewed about their computer attitudes before and after an interactive storybook session. The results showed a high level of computer awareness, with boys holding more gender-stereotypical views, and experience did not seem to alter these beliefs. Those holding cross-gender beliefs about computers (mainly the girls) were more restrictive in their exploration of the software. In the other two studies, a questionnaire was used to assess computer attitudes among high school students. All held positive views with gender differences of degree but not kind. Few students held gender-stereotypical beliefs, although, there was a consensus that females were less proficient with computers. Unlike the preschoolers, the exploratory behavior of the older students was not related to attitudes. The results suggest that affirmative action programs are working within the high schools, but the provision of more female role models is considered to be important in helping to bridge the computer gender gap. Because gender attitudes about technology are formed early, these efforts need to include the very young.

Preschoolers' beliefs about sex and age differences in emotionality

The goal of the present study was to assess preschoolers' beliefs about the frequency and intensity with which boys, girls, women, and men experience anger, sadness, and happiness. Sixty-seven middle-class preschool children (35 girls, 32 boys) were presented with drawings of adult and child figures of each sex, and were asked to rate how frequently and intensely the emotions were felt (91% of the children were white; the remainder were primarily black). Children's gender stereotyped beliefs were particularly strong for sadness and appeared to be based on a deficit-experience model for males. Sex of target differences also were found for children's beliefs about anger (favoring males). However, the sex difference in anger was based more on the degree to which anger is believed to be experienced rather than on differences in beliefs regarding males' and females' capacity to experience anger. Age of target differences were also found for sadness and anger, but not for happiness. It was concluded that preschoolers' beliefs about differences in emotions are complex, and vary as a function of the sex and age of the target person, and as a function of the specific emotion.

The impact of mothers' gender-role stereotypic beliefs on mothers' and children's ability perceptions.

The focus of this study is the relation between mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs, their perceptions of their children's abilities, and their children's self-perceptions in 3 activity domains. Approximately 1,500 mothers and their 11- to 12-year-old children responded to questions about the children's abilities in the math, sports, and social domains. It was predicted that mothers' beliefs about their children would be moderated by their gender stereotypic beliefs about the abilities of female and male people in general. As predicted, path analyses revealed that mothers' gender stereotypic beliefs interact with the sex of their child to influence their perceptions of the child's abilities. Mothers' perceptions, in turn, mediate the influence of past performance on children's self-perceptions in each domain.