Gender Socialization Theory Research Articles

Board Gender Diversity and Workplace Safety: Evidence From Quasi‐Natural Experiments

ABSTRACTResearch Questions/IssueThis paper examines the impact of board gender diversity on workplace safety in an international setting from 2002 to 2019. Utilizing gender quotas on corporate boards as a quasi‐natural experiment, we explore the causal effects of gender diversity on workplace safety, highlighting the significant influence of corporate board gender quotas on corporate policies.Research Findings/ResultsUsing a sample of 13,124 firm‐year observations from 48 countries, our findings reveal that gender quotas on corporate boards are linked to higher rates of work‐related injuries. The association is particularly strong in financially constrained firms, as well as in those with high workloads and low investments in workplace safety. In contrast, this effect is mitigated in firms located in countries with strong institutional frameworks and high union representation. The results hold across various regression specifications and remain robust when considering different measures of workplace injuries, board gender diversity, and additional control variables.Theoretical ImplicationsOur study draws on gender behavior theory, social role theory, and gender socialization theory, with findings particularly aligning with gender behavior theory. It advances understanding of how changes in corporate governance structures related to board diversity influence workplace safety. This research underscores the importance of further empirical work to expand this area of study, suggesting valuable directions for future research through cross‐sectional and longitudinal analyses.Practical ImplicationsThe findings provide critical insights for policymakers considering the implementation of gender quotas in boardrooms. Additionally, this research highlights the need for further exploration of unexamined aspects within governance studies, which will significantly influence future policy debates, legislative processes, and corporate practices in promoting gender diversity and enhancing workplace safety.

Exploring the drivers of modern slavery reporting quality in Indonesia

AbstractVulnerability to modern slavery in Indonesia, particularly driven by poverty and discrimination against minority groups, has become a primary concern in the context of information transparency. This study aims to investigate the factors that can support the reporting quality of modern slavery in Indonesia, namely the industry sector, profitability, social responsibility commitment, and gender diversity as the moderating variable. The research utilized a sample of 225 companies listed on the Indonesia stock exchange (IDX) from 2020 to 2022. Data were collected from financial reports and sustainability reports as well as the Refinitiv Eikon database. Panel data regression analysis was conducted to analyze the determinants of the disclosure quality. The research findings indicate that high‐risk industry sectors tend to disclose less information regarding modern slavery, with this outcome having a partially negative impact. However, profitability is not associated with the quality of voluntary modern slavery disclosure. In contrast, corporate responsibility commitment is positively associated. Additionally, this study reveals that gender diversity does not moderate the association between the industry sector, profitability, and corporate responsibility commitment with the disclosure quality of modern slavery. This research contributes to the growing literature on the accountability of modern slavery in an emerging country context through institutional theory and gender socialization theory lenses by identifying the firm‐level factors to enhance corporate disclosure in this area. This study also contributes to corporate understanding of modern slavery issues within supply chains. With growing attention to this problem, the awareness of labor exploitation within corporate supply chains is also increasing. The findings of this research can assist companies in recognizing the importance of transparency and voluntary disclosure regarding modern slavery in their supply chains.

Female power, ownership and ESG decoupling: evidence from China

PurposeThis study explores the influence of female executives on the misalignment between corporate ESG commitments and practices, a phenomenon known as ESG decoupling. It also enhances the understanding of female power on affecting ESG decoupling under different ownership settings.Design/methodology/approachThis study uses a quantitative research design to explore the impact mechanism of female executives’ proportion on corporate ESG decoupling under different ownership contexts based on a sample of 2,585 firm-year observations from publicly traded Chinese companies between 2011 and 2021.FindingsBased on agency theory, upper echelons theory and gender socialization theory, our findings indicate that (1) female executives are significantly effective in reducing ESG decoupling, and (2) this effect is more pronounced in non-state-owned enterprises (non-SOEs) compared to state-owned enterprises (SOEs).Originality/valueThis study contributes original insights into the ESG decoupling literature by demonstrating the external influences of corporate governance structure, particularly in the context of China’s unique corporate ownership environment. It also provides strong social implications by highlighting the role of gender dynamics in corporate governance, corporate social responsibility (CSR) behaviors and ESG alignment.

The cost of "snubbing": the effect of parental phubbing on filial piety behavior in children and adolescents.

Although numerous studies have used Chinese samples to examine the consequences of parental phubbing, these studies focused on children's mental health and peer interaction. No research to date has directly explored the association between parental phubbing and child-parent interaction. Since parental phubbing is a way how parents interact with their children (parent-child), it might be associated with the way how children interact with their parents (child-parent), such as filial piety behavior, which prescribes how children behave toward their parents and remains one of the goals of parents in educating their children in modern Chinese society. Based on social exchange theory and social gender theory, this study investigated the impact of parental phubbing on filial piety behavior and tested its mediation of perceived parental rejection, its moderation of gender among children and adolescents. This study was conducted using a questionnaire method. A total of 753 students from Grade 4 to 9 (Mage = 12.28 years, SD = 1.81 years) was surveyed using the Parental Phubbing Scale, Perceived Parental Rejection Questionnaire, and the revised Dual Filial Piety Scale. First, parental phubbing was negatively correlated with reciprocal filial piety (RFP) behavior, but not correlated with authoritarian filial piety (AFP) behavior. Second, perceived parental rejection played a mediating role between parental phubbing and RFP behavior. Third, this direct effect was moderated by gender, in that it was stronger for boys than for girls. These findings suggest that there are intergenerational costs of phubbing, such as reducing children and adolescents' RFP behavior. The present study is the first to combine parent-child interaction in the digital media era (parental phubbing) with traditional Chinese child-parent interaction (RFP behavior), which expands the research topic on the influence of parental phubbing on children and adolescents' psychological development.

Environmental pressure and board gender diversity: Evidence from the European Union Emission Trading System

AbstractWe examine how environmental pressure influences board gender diversity. Drawing from resource dependence, strategic adaptation, and gender socialization theories, we develop and test the prediction that firms with worse environmental performance have a higher likelihood of increasing their board gender diversity following a rise in environmental pressure. Focusing on the third phase (2013–2019) of the European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS), we exploit the unexpected increase in emission prices after the European Council's (EC) intervention in 2017 as a quasi‐natural experiment bringing heightened environmental pressure to firms. Our baseline sample consists of 182 polluting firms in 20 different EU ETS‐covered countries. In line with our main hypothesis, we find that board gender diversity increases with firms' industry‐adjusted levels of pollution in the post‐EC intervention period, with the effect being particularly pronounced for firms with a higher exposure to emission prices and lower diversity levels. Inconsistent with a window dressing explanation, highly polluting firms replace incumbent male board members with highly qualified women. Our findings, which survive several robustness tests, suggest that more stringent environmental regulation drives social and governance changes at top corporate levels.

From Production to Viewing: The Presentation of Female Subjectivity in Siren: Survive the Island

As cultural products, female variety shows have the potential to challenge gender norms and promote gender equality. This study adopts feminist theory, social gender theory, especially the relevant content of postmodern feminist theory and audience usage and satisfaction theories. It closely reads the text of the Korean variety show Siren: Survive the Island. Considering the rise of streaming media and the promotion effect of the feminist movement on the production of such programs, this study focuses on the two levels of program creation and audience reception. It discusses how programs give women the right to speak in creation and how to break away from the male-centered discourse system. In the description of the identity of the contestants, the program selects powerful women who are difficult to become absolute protagonists in the past as narrative subjects so that women can jump out of the traditional societys expectations of their identity. On the bodys performance, the show presents the contestants body from an equal and objective perspective, conveying a positive body concept. At the same time, the show largely meets the needs of modern audiences and inspires audiences consensus on female subjectivity and gender equality. This study aims to combine theory and practice, provide strategies for subsequent works, promote producers and audiences cognition of female subjectivity, call for a more open and inclusive environment, and promote further thinking and development on gender issues in the real society.

The impact of board gender composition on loan covenant violations

AbstractResearch Question/IssueWe examine the role of board gender diversity in attenuating loan covenant violations. We also investigate whether the relationship is influenced by female independent directors. Finally, we examine the channels of this relationship.Research Findings/InsightsDrawing on gender socialization and diversity theories, our findings show that firms with gender‐diverse boards are less likely to violate loan covenants. We also find that boards with more female directors have a stronger impact on loan covenant violations than those with fewer female directors, consistent with critical mass theory. Our results also suggest that the negative relationship stems from female independent directors rather than from female executive directors. Our channel analyses indicate that the relationship is routed through covenant strictness, the financial performance of firms, and better corporate governance. Our further analysis demonstrates that the relationship is pronounced in female‐dominated industries and financially distressed firms, as well as in firms whose directors have greater experience. Our results are robust across a series of sensitivity and endogeneity tests.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsWe contribute to an emerging strand of literature that examines the link between board gender diversity and loan covenants. We fill a gap in this stream of literature by providing the first empirical evidence that female directors in the boardroom reduce loan covenant violations through their greater integrative bargaining skills during loan deals, improving firm financial performance, and ensuring good corporate governance. Our study also contributes to the growing literature on the differential effects on corporate policies of female directors (independent and executive) and critical mass.Practitioner/Policy ImplicationsThis finding offers significant policy implications for managers, investors, and policymakers. Given the growing frequency of loan covenant violations, the presence of a gender‐diverse board should serve as a potent indicator to creditors who have a concern regarding loans. In addition, our study adds to the ongoing debate regarding the business case of board gender diversity.

“However I talk about it, my kids tell me I’m doing it wrong”: U.S. Mothers of Cisgender Children Grapple With Gender Diversity

Current literature shows that parents of trans and gender-diverse children relearn gender from their children to fulfill their parenting role. In-depth interviews with 35 mothers raising teens in a progressive region of the United States reveal that mothers of cisgender children must also relearn gender to parent successfully, and they utilize their children’s generational gender literacy to do so. Using the theory of gender as structure, I argue that, in a progressive community, transitions on the institutional and individual levels of gender created a shift on the interactional level, causing mothers who were socialized into gender as binary and stable to reconceptualize it as fluid and to adopt appropriate gendering conduct. In the new generational and local regime, accountability, thus far conceptualized in gender theory as reinforcing heteronormativity, became a tool for enforcing conscious gendering conduct. Furthermore, despite theories of gender and sexual socialization flowing from parent to child, I find that children had access to individual and institutional-level resources helping them adapt to the new gender regime. Children thus became tutors and cultural resources for their mothers, illustrating that the direction of gender socialization may depend on cultural fluency rather than family role.

Shaping a sustainable future: The impact of board gender diversity on clean energy use and the moderating role of environmental, social and governance controversies

AbstractThis study investigates how gender‐diverse boards are related to the adoption of clean energy and examines whether environmental, social, and governance (ESG) controversies have an impact on this link. The study analyzes 2395 firm‐year observations from 13 European countries from 2006 to 2021. Drawing on the gender socialization theory and diversity theory, the research reveals a favorable effect of board gender diversity on a company's utilization of clean energy. It also demonstrates that ESG controversies play a significant role in moderating this relationship. Furthermore, the study affirms the critical mass theory by indicating that companies with at least three female board members exhibit a greater use of clean energy. The findings are robust to various methods, such as controlling for endogeneity problems, propensity score matching, sub‐sample analysis, and alternative econometric models. This study's implications are important for stakeholders, policymakers, and managers. It suggests that having a gender‐diverse board can increase the adoption of clean energy, benefiting a company's reputation and attractiveness to stakeholders. Policymakers can use these findings to design policies that encourage gender diversity on boards and achieve environmental goals, while managers can make informed decisions about board composition and clean energy adoption.

The Independence of Princess Images in Frozen and Princess Animated Films Series of Disney

Social gender theory is proposed to distinguish biological sex, which holds that gender is not just born but acquired through psychological, cultural, and social norms and more. Nowadays, scholars generally study the issues of communication and gender from the perspective of social gender. The Disney Frozen and Princess series of animated films has created 14 princesses with different images and styles in 80 years, from 1937 to 2017. The inner characters of the women in the films are influenced by the environment and ideology of The Times to a certain extent. Based on gender theory, nine princesses were randomly selected from 14 princesses in 13 Disney officially recognized princess films and Frozen as research objects, and the independent characteristics of princess characters were coded and analyzed by using the content analysis method to explore the main reasons for the change. The research finds that, with the development of the times, the princesses in the Disney princess animation series gradually show more independent characteristics in personalities. Moreover, the main reasons for the differences and changes in these princesses are the changes in social culture.

THE POWER OF DAUGHTERS: THE ROLE OF SIBSHIP GENDER COMPOSITION IN MOTHER-ADULT CHILD RELATIONS

Abstract Prior scholarship demonstrates that older mothers receive more care from daughters, prefer daughters as caregivers, and have stronger emotional bonds with daughters. Despite these clear gendered differences in care, care preferences, and closeness, less is known about whether the presence of daughters in a family affects mother-adult son relationships or whether the presence of sons in a family affects mother-adult daughter relationships. Drawing from theories of gender socialization and social exchange, we propose that mothers would, given the choice between daughters and sons, prefer to receive care from and engage in emotional exchanges with daughters. Therefore, we predict sons’ care to and emotional closeness with older mothers will be inversely related to the number of daughters in the family. We test our hypotheses with mixed-method data from 1,577 mother-adult child dyads nested within 420 families collected as part of the Within-Family Differences Study-II. Findings support our hypotheses. The larger the number of daughters, the less likely sons are to provide care to their mothers, whereas the likelihood of daughters providing care is unaffected by the number of sons. Similarly, the larger the number of daughters, the lower closeness mothers report with their sons, whereas mother-adult daughter closeness is unrelated to the number of sons. In sum, our findings show ways in which both an adult child’s gender and the gender composition of their sibship affect mother-adult child relationships, as well as highlighting the applicability of theories of gender socialization and social exchange to the context of aging families.

Does board gender diversity reduce workplace sexual harassment?

AbstractResearch Question/IssueWe contrast the predictions of gender socialization theory and “fem‐power washing” (deceptively positioning as a firm promoting female empowerment without any tangible actions) to investigate whether promoting female directors on the board of directors associates with a reduction in the prevalence of firm‐level workplace sexual harassment (SH).Research Findings/InsightsWe estimate the incidence rate of SH through textual analysis of US employees' job reviews published online during the period 2011–2021. We find that an increase of one female director is associated with a 21.81% decrease in workplace SH and that firms with high board gender diversity synchronize the reduction in SH with improved social policies (e.g., policies to better employee relations, health and safety, or diversity challenges). Our results do not support the fem‐power washing theory but rather imply that nominating female directors may have a profound impact on the firm's ethical culture.Theoretical/Academic ImplicationsThis study validates the ethical dimension of corporate governance: Nominating female directors impacts a firm harassment culture and, by extension, a firm's ethical and corporate culture. This study adds to the governance literature that debates the merits of board gender diversity by highlighting an oft‐ignored channel through which board diversity affects firm value: ethics and corporate culture.Practitioner/Policy ImplicationsFor boards of directors, having more female directors can curb workplace SH, a behavior that is associated with a severe and lasting negative effect on firm value. For practitioners, regulators, and the business community, this study reinforces the merits of aiming towards more gender‐balanced boards.

Board gender diversity and corporate carbon commitment: Does industry matter?

AbstractThe study examines whether board gender diversity is associated with corporate carbon commitment, and if so, whether the association varies between firms operating in the extractive and non‐extractive industries. Based on insights drawn from gender socialization, resource dependence, and critical mass theories, we develop models that link board gender diversity with corporate carbon commitment. Analyzing data obtained from Standard and Poor's 1500 firms, for the period 2015 to 2019, we find that higher representation of women on a firm's board is positively associated with the firm's carbon commitment and that the association is stronger for firms in the extractive industries. Furthermore, a nominal appointment of women to a firm's board reduces the likelihood of the firm's carbon commitment being at a given or higher level, while the appointment of a “critical mass” of women to the board increases the firm's inclination toward higher carbon commitment. Our findings suggest that regulatory and policymaking agencies could exploit legislative and policy initiatives that would promote board gender diversity to encourage corporates, especially those operating in the extractive industries, to commit to the climate change cause.

Are gender‐diverse boards eco‐innovative? The mediating role of corporate social responsibility strategy

AbstractDespite the recognized importance of board gender diversity and eco‐innovation, it is far from clear how board gender diversity can improve eco‐innovation. Grounded in upper echelon theory and the gender socialization theory, we suggest that this relationship operates through corporate social responsibility (CSR) strategy. In a sample of FTSE 350 firms, we find that CSR strategy mediates the influence of the board's gender diversity on eco‐innovation. These findings are robust to several regression specifications and alternative samples. This work offers empirical evidence that gender diversity on boards can play a significant role in promoting firm's CSR strategy, which in turn improves eco‐innovation. Our findings could provide useful insights for regulators and stakeholders concerned with enhancing corporate governance structure and promoting eco‐innovation.

You Make Me Sick: Abuse at Work and Healthcare Utilization

ABSTRACT Though research on abuse at work is abundant, abusive supervision’s effects on healthcare utilization and outcomes remains unknown. We use two working samples (n 1 = 701; n 2 = 155) to test abusive supervision’s effects on subjective health perceptions and objective health and healthcare utilization (i.e., chronic illness and pain medications/diagnoses and number of visits to a medical professional). We argue that work-family balance and burnout serially mediated these effects. Using surveys and electronic health records, we find support tying abusive supervision to both subjective and objective health outcomes. Integrating logic from gender socialization theory, we argue (and find support) for the moderation of these effects by gender, such that the relationships are stronger for men. We conclude with future research directions and organizational implications.

Gender Stereotypes and The Dynamics of Women Evaluation: A Study of Igbo Anthroponymic Systems

The essentialist belief or perception that females are less valuable or are not worth as much as males and practices that mandate this behavior portray age-long and ideological underpinnings that drive gender discrimination. The aim of this article is to examine how unwritten rules of society and constrained expectations about women influence some derogatory names given to female children and their cultural reconstructions over time given a positive life outcome. The study adopts Ernestine Friedel’s Social theory of gender and the Status Characteristic theory to challenge the perception that women are less valuable and explore ways in which normative expectations, male dominance and economic realities affect the values assigned to women in each culture. This is critical social research that investigated the semantic contents of some derogatory female Igbo names and their cultural reconstructions as changes in social context raised the cultural worth of those females in their life trajectories. It employed the ethnographic method of study with narratives, participant observation and informal interview methodology for collection of qualitative data. The paper analyses the gender-based values, ideologies and norms that mandate women devaluation and other relationships that have placed women in a subordinate status. It offers an emic understanding of a process of change that transforms negative attitudes toward women indicated by the new names given to them. The study recommends a cultural reorientation as a means to ‘break the bias’ and end all forms of discrimination against girls.

The Effects of Female Directors on Corporate Philanthropic Expenditures in Chinese Firms

본 논문에서는 중국기업에서 여성이사가 기부금 지출에 미치는 영향을 분석하기 위해 2004년에서 2019년도까지의 3,256 기업의 26,512 건의 관측 자료를 수집하여 불균형 패널분석을 실시하였다. 실증분석 결과, 중국 상장기업에서 여성이사 비중은 기부금 지출에 정(+)의 영향을 미치는 것으로 나타났다. 본 실증결과는 이타적이고 높은 공동체적 의식을 갖는 여성이사가 기업의 자선활동으로서 기부금 지출을 증가시킨다는 논의를 지지하는 것으로 해석된다. 한편 이러한 여성이사와 기부금 지출 간의 정(+)의 관계는 국유기업에서는 유의미한 반면 민영기업에서는 유의하지 않아 중국기업에서 여성이사가 기부금 지출에 미치는 영향은 기업의 소유 유형에 따라 달라질 수 있음을 시사한다.Using 26,512 observations from 3,265 firms in Chinese listed during 2004 to 2019, the study examines the impact of female directors on corporate philanthropic giving, based on literature of cognitive psychology and gender socialization theory that women are more altruistic as well as communal than men, and upper echelon that that top managers’ value and attitude affect their decision making. The major findings as follow; First, there is a positive relationship between the ratio of female directors and the extent of corporate philanthropic giving in terms of the ratio of value of company donations to assets, suggesting that female directors promote socially responsible practices due to their benevolent as well as communal traits. Second, the positive relationship between the existences of female directors and the extent of corporate philanthropic giving are significant in state-owned firms while it is not in private-owned firms, implying that the the effects of female directors on corporate decision making may be restrained by the type of firm’s ownership.

Research on Gender Discrimination in Chinese Workplace Based on Social Gender Theory

Gender discrimination in the workplace is a really important problem right now. Based on this backdrop, the purpose of this paper is to investigate this topic and establish the research subject, which will be China’s workplace gender discrimination, with the hope of exploring certain common legislation from the perspective of human resource administration. Through the use of the literature, this study discovered that in the process of China’s human resource management force, the definition of sex discrimination has its own unique meaning, the form has pay with different payment, single gender recruitment, female mating birth is limited by contract, and so on, investigate its reason, women’s natural responsibility under the premise of unit of choose and employ persons does not undertake the cost, and so on. In order to address this issue, the government should reinforce policy support and guidance, better male supported baby rearing, and increase employers’ awareness of their social responsibilities, according to the research published in this journal. The authors of this work hope that this research will serve as a resource for resolving or relieving this situation.

Real Earnings Management: Do the Experience and Gender of Big4 Auditors Matters?

Objective - This study examines whether the experience and gender of auditors in Big4 firm in relationship of deterring Real Earnings Management (REM).Different from the majority of previous studies, this study focuses on auditors in Big4 audit firms and real earnings management within Malaysian business environment. Big4 audit firms are associated with high quality audit because of the reputation to uphold, thus adopted stringent quality control and assurance approach, systems and procedures. Once adopted, the effect of individual characteristics may become less important. Thus, it is questionable whether individual characteristics such as auditor experience and gender could still have an influence on the outcomes of an audit, in this case, REM, when the audit firms are Big 4 (assuming very stringent quality control procedures are adopted). Methodology/Technique –This study substantiates prior literature and conducted tests only on companies audited by Big4 audit firms. We also find that auditor experiences confirms to Agency Theory where REM reduces when the experience increases. Data was obtained from the Companies Commission of Malaysia (SSM), DataStream and Bursa Malaysia. Findings - The result confirms prior literature that auditor experience is still an important factor that can limit REM, even in companies audited by the Big4 firms. The results however reveal that Big4 female auditors do not have any significant effect in reducing REM. Novelty -Although female auditors are claimed by Gender Socialization Theory, to have better moral judgments than male auditors, the result shows both genders are equal, at least in limiting REM. Type of Paper: Empirical. JEL Classification: M40; M41; M42 Keywords: Big4 Auditors; Auditor Experience; Real Earnings Management; Auditor Gender; Bursa Malaysia

Biodiversity disclosure, sustainable development and environmental initiatives: Does board gender diversity matter?

AbstractModern‐day corporations are under intense stakeholder pressure to incorporate environmentalism, particularly biodiversity initiatives, into their business strategy. Building on upper echelon and gender socialization theories, we investigate the effect of board gender diversity (BGD) on the biodiversity initiatives undertaken by firms for the restoration and rehabilitation of damaged ecosystems and/or to minimize their environmental impacts. Using data on 2406 US firms covered in the ASSET4 database for the period 2002–2018 (15,337 firm‐year observations), we document a significant positive association between BGD and both biodiversity restoration protection and impact reduction initiatives. Our findings are consistent for exploitative and nonexploitative industries, as well as for the pre‐ and post‐UN resolution on conservation of biodiversity periods. We further develop a causal relationship through the positive impact of BGD on management environment training and environmental partnerships—possible mechanisms by which BGD may impact biodiversity initiatives. The results suggest that BGD is vital for developing strategies concerning the restoration, protection and impact reduction of biodiversity and ecosystems. Our findings are of interest to legislators and regulators who are interested in assessing biodiversity initiatives, improving environmental policies and promoting gender diversity in company director boards.