Human rights groups have traditionally monitored and publicized human rights abuses suffered mainly by men (e.g., torture, killings, and imprisonment) and have ignored abuses of women. Gender-sensitive research and women's groups have uncovered this oversight. Rape in the former Yugoslavia is now considered a war crime, requiring full investigation and punishment. Conflict and violence affect women in several ways related specifically to the gender division of rights, responsibilities, and roles. Class and ethnic differences conceal this gender related experience, however. Even in countries sympathetic to women's equality, women still are second class citizens. Women are always conscious of the ever-present threat or experience of physical and sexual violence, almost always inflicted by men. Perpetrators use violence to keep women down; to restrict opportunities for them to live, learn, work, and care a full human beings; to impede their potential to organize and demand their rights. Domestic violence against women occurs across all social groups, races, age groups, and religious and political persuasions. Violence against females begins before birth. Forced prostitution violates women's human rights. Patriarchy supports discriminatory treatment and backs violence as a legitimate means to preserve the status quo. Was has had a gender-related effect on women in Afghanistan, Chad, and Cambodia. The psychological and social impact of conflict (e.g., state-sponsored terrorism) on women is also examined. Physical ailments are often manifestations of psychological disorders. Common themes are women's increased vulnerability to rape and sexual abuse during conflict, rapid rise in the numbers of households dependent on women's labor, placing on them an excessive burden, and complete disruption of economic and social life. Further, this disruption provides opportunities for women to overcome some aspects of their traditional roles. More than 80% of the world's refugees are women, their dependent children, and the elderly. Women are becoming leaders in armed conflict.