Gender Schema Research Articles

Fairy Godmothers > Robots

The present study, grounded in gender schema theory, employed a posttest experimental design to examine how television might influence girls’ perceptions of STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics). Girls (6-9 years old) were either exposed to stereotypical or counter-stereotypical STEM female television characters. In a posttest following exposure, girls reported math and science self-efficacy, preference for STEM and stereotypical careers, and perceptions of scientists’ gender using the draw-a-scientist procedure. Girls in the stereotype condition reported more interest in stereotypical careers and were more likely to perceive scientists as males than girls in the counter-stereotype STEM condition or a no exposure control. Girls in the counter-stereotype STEM condition did not differ from the no exposure control in any of the dependent variables. Results suggest that onetime exposure to televised stereotypes may activate existing gender schema, but that onetime exposure to televised counter-stereotypes may not have the capacity to alter girls’ STEM schema.

Moving away from a cultural deficit to a holistic perspective: Traditional gender role values, academic attitudes, and educational goals for Mexican descent adolescents.

Latina/o youth lag behind Asian American and non-Latina/o White youth in many academic areas. Previous research has taken a deficit approach to understand the factors that affect academic outcomes for Latina/o youth often neglecting to highlight both the potential positive and negative contributions of gender role values. The present study took a holistic perspective to understand the affect of traditional Latina/o gender role values (i.e., marianismo, machismo, and caballerismo) on the academic attitudes and educational goals of Mexican descent youth. Structural equation models were tested to examine the associations of "positive" and "negative" gender role values on educational goals using 524 Mexican descent adolescents from a mid-sized city in southern Texas. We hypothesized that positive aspects of traditional Latina/o gender role values (i.e., "positive marianismo" and caballerismo) would be associated with more positive attitudes toward academics and higher educational goals. We further expected negative gender role values (i.e., "negative marianismo" and machismo) to have the opposite effect. Additionally, based on the theory of planned behavior and gender schema theory, academic attitudes were hypothesized to mediate the relation between gender role values and educational goals. An alternative model was tested in which educational goals mediated the relation between gender roles and academic attitudes. Results indicated that both models fit the data well, and recommendations are made for future longitudinal research aimed at disentangling the directionality of the relations in the model. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Sandra Bem’s Gender Schema Theory After 34 Years: A Review of its Reach and Impact

One of Sandra Bem’s important contributions was the development of gender schema theory (GST; Bem 1981a). Through an analysis of journal articles referencing GST, we explored the breadth of the theory’s reach and the ways in which its use has changed over time. More specifically, we analyzed how often GST reached journals outside psychology as well as journals and research populations outside the United States, even though Bem was a U.S. psychologist whose empirical work was primarily with U.S. populations. We also assessed the range of research topics that have used a GST framework. We found that 34 years later, GST continues to be cited frequently, with a broad reach beyond U.S. psychology, particularly into international as well as communication and business journals. We found five primary novel uses of the theory: development, discrimination/stereotyping, occupations, historically marginalized populations, and mental health and trauma. We conclude that GST has been a generative theory. For the future, we recommend that GST be used to frame the study of intersectionality, for research-based activism, and as part of a project of theory-bridging.

Psychological profiles of gender and personality traces of Brazilian professional athletes of futsal, and their influence on physiological parameters.

The present study aimed to identify the psychological profiles of professional futsal players in terms of the gender schema and to evaluate the physiological parameters (speed, acceleration, strength, and power) and fatigue index of these athletes according to their gender profiles and relative to their positions on the court. The Masculine Inventory of the Self-concept Gender Schemas was used to classify the sample into typological groups, and the Running Anaerobic Sprint Test was used to measure the physiological parameters (speed, acceleration, strength, and power) and the fatigue index. The study sample was composed of 64 male professional futsal players who competed in the National Indoor Soccer league in 2013; the subjects had an average weight of 76.00±6.7 kg. Among the athletes studied, 23 (35.9%) were classified as heteroschematic female, 22 (34.4%) as heteroschematic male, and 19 (29.7%) as isoschematic. Regarding their positions on the court, eleven were goalkeepers (17.2%), 13 (20.3%) were defenders, 28 (43.8%) were midfielders, and 12 (18.8%) were attackers. The players had similar weights even when belonging to different typological groups and having different positions in the court. However, it is worth noting that male heteroschematic players had a greater mean weight (77.11±5.93 kg) and that the goalkeeper was, on average, the heaviest player (79.36±8.14 kg). The results of the physiological parameter analysis relative to typological group showed that, on average, high-level soccer players presented similar performance profiles in different rounds, as statistically significant differences were not found in any of the studied physiological variables (weight, distance, speed, acceleration, strength, power, and fatigue index). Although the results of this research did not reveal statistically significant differences between the groups in terms of the assessed variables, we observed that some results related to personality traits associated with both the male and female components could help to clarify and establish relationships with some strategic aspects inherent to futsal.

Isidora Mart??nez, une femme en qu??te de libert?? dans le P??rou du XIXe si??cle

The article analyzes a case of female agency in nineteenth-century Peruvian patriarchal society. The study focuses on the trajectory of Isidora Mart??nez (1822-1880), a woman who through education and profession of certified midwife, breaks certain gender schemas that time. So, thanks to its use becomes head of household regardless of economic cooperation of her husband. The desire for freedom is manifested in their distrust of the marriage institution that led her to seek divorce. Thanks to financial empowerment and professionally acquired Mart??nez manages to win the trial and live independently eighteen years.

Affecting Girls' Activity and Job Interests Through Play: The Moderating Roles of Personal Gender Salience and Game Characteristics.

Gender schema theory (GST) posits that children approach opportunities perceived as gender appropriate, avoiding those deemed gender inappropriate, in turn affecting gender-differentiated career trajectories. To test the hypothesis that children's gender salience filters (GSF-tendency to attend to gender) moderate these processes, 62 preschool girls (M = 4.5 years) were given GSF measures. Two weeks later, they played a computer game about occupations that manipulated the game-character's femininity (hyperfeminized Barbie vs. less feminized Playmobil Jane). Following game play, girls' interests in feminine activities showed an interaction of game condition and GSF: High-GSF girls showed intensified feminine activity interests only with Barbie; low-GSF girls showed no change with either character. Neither GSF nor game condition affected occupational interests. Implications for GST, individual differences, and occupational interventions are discussed.

Can Anyone Have it All? Gendered Views on Parenting and Academic Careers

This article is based on data from two qualitative studies that examined the experiences of 93 tenure-line faculty members who are also mothers and fathers. Using gender schemas and ideal worker norms as a guide, we examined the pressures that professors experience amid unrealistic expectations in their work and home lives. Women participants reported performing a disproportionate amount of care in the home while simultaneously feeling unable to take advantage of family-friendly policies. In contrast, men acknowledged that, although their partners performed more care in the home, they felt penalized for wanting to be involved parents.

What can boys and girls do? Preschoolers’ perspectives regarding gender roles across domains of behavior

Previous research has examined at what age and in what contexts males and females develop gender-congruent stereotypes. Research indicates that social experience may provide a great influence on the presence of such stereotypes, but this is likely influenced by the development of gender schemas. The current study interviewed 99 children (3–6.5 years) in a sub-rural Midwestern university community. Females (N = 51, M age = 4.6, SD = 0.73) and males (N = 48, M age = 4.6, SD = 0.82) were individually asked who—boys, girls, or both—can do particular (1) occupations, (2) activities, (3) aggressive behaviors, and (4) prosocial behaviors. Generally, males tended to express holding no stereotypic beliefs, indicating gender-congruent expectations for only 2 items in one of the domains; however, females expressed multiple stereotypic beliefs for each of the four contexts. Social and cognitive explanations for these phenomena are discussed. The current study is an important addition to the existing literature in that preschool teachers and parents alike might be able to assist children to better develop activities and behavioral habits such that gender-related stereotypes fail to develop.

BSUJ 2(1) part 3 photography: 'Protester'

“The struggle for fair treatment is carried forward into the next generations.” --Bruce HoffmanRead on to learn more about the complex relationships between self-processes and social cognitive processes such as gender schemas and stereotype formation.

A Brief Review of Cognitive Theories in Gender Development

In this paper I review three cognitive theories that attempt to explain the mechanisms and processes through which we develop an understanding of gender. Cognitive-developmental theory, gender schema theory, and social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation are compared in this article through the exploration of empirical evidence. Cognitive-developmental theory emphasizes the development of cognitive processes which allow for the understanding of gender. Gender schema theory highlights the active role schemas play in acquiring and interpreting gender relevant information, and social-cognitive theory stresses the role of the environment. I found that there is a considerable amount of overlap with the evidence between each theory. Therefore, rather than each theory existing in opposition to one another, there are multiple relevant factors at play concerning both cognition and the social environment in the development of gender. Thus, the main conclusion is that there is a need for greater theoretical integration with regard to understanding gendered development.

A Qualitative Case Study on the Discrepancy between Children’s Gender Schema and Gender Role Acceptability：With a Focus on the Intersexual Role Playing of Two Brothers’

It is generally known that children’s development of ‘gender schema’ and ‘gender role stereotype’ has a positive relationship with the notion of ‘gender role preference’. This study analyzed an unusual case focusing on the role playing of two brothers’. The elder brother, Hyoung-Gyoo, always preferred to take the female role, and he had a preference for feminine names like “Cordelia” whilst engaging in role playing situations. The brothers can be said to have crossed the border into the realm of intersexual role playing. The results revealed Hyoung-Gyoo’s clear discrepancy between gender-related perceptions and reality, and showed his younger sibling Je-Gyoo’s high level of acceptance towards his brother’s extraordinary gender role preference. The results of this study can serve as a useful reference point for detailing unusual development from early childhood regarding ‘opposite-gender-role seeking’ characteristics. 색인어: 성 도식, 성 ì—­í• ê³ ì •ê´€ë , 이성지향자(ç•°æ€§å¿—å‘è€ ), 성 ì •ì²´ê°, 성 ì—­í• ìˆ˜ìš©ì„± Keywords: gender schema, gender role stereotype, opposite-gender-role seeker, gender identity, gender role acceptability

Macho Nachos

Abstract. The present studies examine how culturally held stereotypes about gender (that women eat more healthfully than men) implicitly influence food preferences. In Study 1, priming masculinity led both male and female participants to prefer unhealthy foods, while priming femininity led both male and female participants to prefer healthy foods. Study 2 extended these effects to gendered food packaging. When the packaging and healthiness of the food were gender schema congruent (i.e., feminine packaging for a healthy food, masculine packaging for an unhealthy food) both male and female participants rated the product as more attractive, said that they would be more likely to purchase it, and even rated it as tasting better compared to when the product was stereotype incongruent. In Study 3, packaging that explicitly appealed to gender stereotypes (“The muffin for real men”) reversed the schema congruity effect, but only among participants who scored high in psychological reactance.

Gender Stereotypes, Performance and Identification with Math

Previous research has showed that school achievements depend on studentś motivation and identification (Zimmerman, 2000). There are some differences between girls and boys beliefs about mathematics (Gallagher & Kaufman, 2005). We still do not have enough information about relations between identification and gender beliefs and about the impact of those two areas on real knowledge. The paper presents new research on academic achievements and attitudes of girls and boys in mathematics. The basic aim is to test whether there is a correlation between mathematical knowledge/performance, identification with mathematics and gender schemas. The study involved 436 boys and girls who were divided into two age groups – 10 or 11 years old and 14 or 15 years old. Data were collected using a questionnaire focusing both on identification with math, and on gender schemas. The second source of data was a didactic test with 10 or 12 math items from TIMSS. In all three areas (identification with math, gender schemas, didactic test), average scores were calculated. Correlations between scores were identified. Differences concerning gender and age were examined. Results show that boys and girls reach similar test scores and have similar identification with math. Gender beliefs about mathematics were pretty strong and got stronger for boys and the older group. As children get older, differences between boys and girls increase as does heterogeneity within each group. However, the relationship between performance, beliefs and identification is low, except for the group of older boys. The paper discusses some more results and recommendations for math schooling from psychological perspective.

Women are More Religious Than Men; is this True?

The terms religion and religiosity are intertwined with those that religion is more socially-cultural aspect and religiosity is more individual [1]. An important question is how to measure religiosity because general religiosity cannot be operationalised and assessed [2], and more specific behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects of religion and spirituality need to be identified. Most psychological research focuses on two measures of religiositybelief and behavior. Some researchers have developed measures of religiosity and spirituality to suit their immediate research needs, and virtually all measures of religiosity have been developed in Christian contexts, and are unsuitable for use in other religious traditions. There are many questions that deal with religiosity and gender differences in religiosity is one of them. Interpretations of differences in religiosity between men and women can be reduced to several basic theories: socialization theory, theory of position in the social structure, gender schemas theory and essentialist theory. Socialization theory and theory of position in the social structure more concerned with the differences that are observed in the religious practice of women and men (reading Bible, pray), while gender schemas theory generally interpret differences in the concept of God and the various mystical endowment between men and women [3]. Many researchers who took investigation in psychology of religiosity found that women are more religious than men and this has been the general conclusion in the social scientific and psychological literature [4]. According to Smith et al. [5], studies have shown that women more than men come to church, more follow religious instructions, more talk with clergy, more engage in daily prayer, more pray for their own benefit, more undertake religious education of the children and more use church for the acquisition of social support. In terms of intrinsic / extrinsic religious orientation, the results are not unambiguous. Either, there is no gender differences on any of the two subscales, or women achieve higher score than man on intrinsic scale [6] of religiosity. Batson et al. [7] in research who were predominantly on Christian samples, reports higher levels of attendance and Bible study among women than among men. Some authors suggested that gender differences in religiosity, such as higher levels of religious involment, prayer and religiosity generally among women comapred to men may be a reflection of greter opportunity among women for religious activity or differences in personality and socialisation [8]. Aim of study was to examine whether women are more religious than men, further differences in religiosity between man and women who live in small and big places were also examined.

Development Ethics, Gender Complementarianism, and Intrahousehold Inequality

Development ethicists see reducing intrahousehold gender inequality as an important policy aim. However, it is unclear that a minimalist cross‐cultural consensus can be formed around this goal. Inequality on its own may not bring women beneath a minimal welfare threshold. Further, adherents of complementarian metaphysical doctrines may view attempts to reduce intrahousehold inequality as attacks on their worldviews. Complicating the justificatory task is the fact that familiar arguments against intrahousehold inequality, including those from agency and self‐esteem, depart from premises that complementarians reject—premises about the value of independence or the moral irrelevance of gender. I propose that development ethicists should offer complementarianism‐compatible arguments against the norms and practices constitutive of intrahousehold inequality. I develop arguments against two intrahousehold inequality‐supportive practices that depart from complementarian premises. Specifically, I argue that patriarchal risk and gender schemas that devalue women's labor prevent men from discharging complementarian duties to promote women's welfare.

“Feminism Begins at Home”: The Influence of Mother Gender Socialization on Daughter Career andMotherhood Aspirations as Channeled Through Daughter Feminist Identification

The current study examines the role of mother gender socialization in the formation of daughter feminist identity, feelings about self, and future aspirations. Guided by Gender Schema Theory (Martin & Ruble, 2004) and Identity Theory (Stryker & Burke, 2000), findings indicate that encouragement of stereotypically feminine activities related to increased well-being and aspirations; discouragement of masculine-oriented behaviors, however, was particularly disadvantageous for daughter development. Feminist identification served as a mediator between gender socialization (encouragement of education for marriage and family and discouragement of other-gender characteristics) and daughter present and future selves. Together, findings indicate the importance of encouraging daughters to incorporate both the feminine and masculine “domains” as a valued part of their daily activities.

Sandra Lipsitz Bem (1944-2014).

This article memorializes Sandra Lipsitz Bem (1944-2014). Bem was a feminism psychologist whose incisive writing and research transformed the psychology of gender and contributed significantly to our understanding of sex-typing, psychological androgyny, gender schema theory, and sexual inequality. Bem and her husband, Daryl Bem, were active in the feminist community in Pittsburgh, and worked with the National Organization for Women to challenge gender-segregated job advertisements in a lawsuit against the Pittsburgh Press in 1969. The Bems co-wrote an influential article, "Case Study of a Nonconscious Ideology: Training the Woman to Know Her Place" (1970) using the word "sexism" when it was not widely known. She created the Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and conducted research showing that conventional gender typing was not necessarily correlated with psychological adjustment. Her publications won her enduring recognition and awards, including the American Psychological Association Distinguished Scientific Award for Early Career Contribution (1976), Distinguished Publication Awards from the Association for Women in Psychology (AWP; 1977, 1994), the Young Scholar Award from the American Association of University Women (1980), and, posthumously, the Distinguished Career Award (AWP, 2014).

An Individual’s Gender Experience: Socio-Cultural Context

The article highlights gender experience development in an individual. The sociocultural context of gender identity development is addressed from the perspective of socialconstructivism. The author describes the mechanism of constructing gender schemas and normswhich reflect socio-cultural experience. Drawing on poststructuralist ideas, the author explorescultural texts which encode assumptions and concepts that serve as schemas for perceiving andunderstanding reality, for reflecting the processes of an individual’s development as a discursivebeing in his or her interpretation of socio-cultural experience. The article also analyzes masculinityand femininity models shaped by socio-cultural schemas and explores gender role expectationsamong the young people in Ukraine

Fearing fear: gender and economic discourse

Economic discourse—or the lack of it—about fear is gendered on at least three fronts. First, while masculine-associated notions of reason and mind have historically been prioritized in mainstream economics, fear—along with other emotions and embodiment—has tended to be culturally associated with femininity. Research on cognitive “gender schema,” then, may at least partly explain the near absence of discussions of fear within economic research. Second, in the extremely rare cases where fear and emotion are alluded to within the contemporary economics literature on risk aversion, there is a tendency to (overly-)strongly associate them with women. Finally, historians and philosophers of science have suggested that the failure to consider the full range of human emotions and experience may be itself rooted in fear: a fear of the feminine. This aversion to discussing fear—especially fear as experienced by men—contributes to serious problems, especially in regard to financial market instability and ecological threats.

Male College Student Perceptions of Intercultural and Study Abroad Programs

In attempt to understand why men participate in study abroad at much lower rates than women, this study examines how male college students at a large research university perceive a university-run global education program, especially in terms of the expected costs and benefits of participating in such programs, and the extent to which gender schemas might influence these perceptions. Ways to more effectively recruit men to participate in study abroad are also discussed.