Gender Role Self-concept Research Articles

Exploring the Relationship: Gender Perceptions and Motivation in Pursuing Professional Piano Careers

The Self-Determination Theory creates a framework for the study of human motivation and personality in which the social environment affects one’s motivation and psychological needs. Intrinsic and identified are the most autonomous forms of motivation for the pursuit of a professional career, which requires great perseverance and practice. These traits typically are intertwined with personal identity, sense of self, and intrinsic motivation. However, this may be hindered by gender perceptions. Currently, the amount of professional female musicians is decreasing in numerous countries. Gender perceptions relating to piano specifically and their relation to motivation is unclear at this point. In this study, the effect of gender perceptions (in the form of gender role self-concept and intrinsic value in music) of female pianists regarding competence on six different forms of motivations, especially identified motivation, as per SDT, will be explored. Participants (N=26) completed a survey with two validated scales; bivariate correlation and linear regression analysis tests were administered. Between “equal gender perceptions” (being uninfluenced by either gender stereotype) and identified regulation, female participants were found to have strong positive correlations while male were found to have small to medium. Regarding “feminine gender perceptions,” female and male participants were found to have strong large positive correlations. Regarding “masculine gender perceptions,” there were no responses from female participants and male participants were found to have small positive to medium negative correlations. The findings reveal that competence is a large predictor of intrinsic motivation and indicates that gender perceptions could be an obstacle.

Psychological Processes Underlying an Omnivorous, Vegetarian, or Vegan Diet: Gender Role Self-Concept, Human Supremacy Beliefs, and Moral Disengagement from Meat

Most people consume meat regularly but simultaneously claim to be animal lovers, which should lead to a state of cognitive dissonance and cause distress. Against this backdrop, it is important to understand why some people decide to stop consuming meat or completely eschew animal products, while others do not. Research has shown gender and self-regulatory mechanisms as important factors, but the underlying psychological processes require further examination. In total, 3259 vegans, vegetarians, and omnivores completed an online questionnaire about their diet, gender role self-concept, moral disengagement from meat consumption, and human supremacy beliefs. The results showed that male vegans described themselves as more feminine but no less masculine than male omnivores, while no such differences were found in women. Furthermore, omnivores reported the highest moral disengagement from meat consumption, followed by vegetarians and vegans. The same was true of human supremacy beliefs. Moreover, the results showed that not only is diet itself related to differences in human supremacy beliefs but also the motives for this diet, with health and environmental motives being associated with stronger human supremacy beliefs than animal-related motives. These findings present practical implications for animal rights activists, marketing, and the health and education sectors.

Benefits of Psychological Androgyny in Adolescence: The Role of Gender Role Self-Concept in School-Related Well-Being.

It has been repeatedly shown that the extent to which individuals adopt stereotypically masculine and feminine traits in their self-concept impacts their health and well-being. This is especially important in adolescence, when developmental changes and social pressures to conform to stereotypical gender roles can affect psychological functioning. However, previous studies investigating relationship between gender role self-concept and well-being in adolescents focused mostly on general well-being rather than well-being in specific contexts. Given that school is one of the most important contexts for adolescents’ development and well-being, the aim of this study was to investigate differences between adolescents with different gender role self-concepts (masculine, feminine, androgynous and undifferentiated) in school-related well-being. In line with the new conceptualization of well-being uniting hedonic (pleasure attainment and pain avoidance) and eudemonic (self-actualization and having meaningful purpose in one’s life) approaches, the present study used a measure of school-related well-being encompassing five domains suggested in the EPOCH (Engagement, Perseverance, Optimism, Connectedness and Happiness) model as well as a superordinate well-being factor. A total of 999 Austrian adolescents (52.2% girls, Mage = 13.79, SDage = 1.53) answered inventories assessing adolescents’ gender role self-concept (GRI-JUG) and school-related well-being (EPOCH-G-S). The results supported the androgyny model of well-being, showing clear advantages of having both positive masculine and feminine qualities in one’s self-concept for optimal levels of school-related well-being. In addition, our results indicated the strong importance of femininity in adolescence and the school context. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Instrumentality Gives Girls the Edge: Gender-Differential Relations Between Instrumentality, Achievement Motivation, and Self-Esteem

Gender differences in school are often discussed in reference to a particular type of masculinity, negative masculinity, which is often conceptualized as detrimental to success. Another type of masculinity, instrumentality, has rarely been studied in schools even though instrumental characteristics are often exalted outside the academic context. The current study focuses on potential benefits that students may reap from instrumentality. The extent to which an instrumental self-concept is directly and indirectly associated with achievement motivation and self-esteem was examined for adolescent boys and girls in a structural equation model (SEM). A sample of German ninth graders (N = 355) completed self-report measures pertaining to their gender role self-concept, hope for success, fear of failure, and global and academic contingent self-esteem. The SEM revealed that instrumentality was associated with lower fear of failure and higher hope for success for both male and female adolescents. High scores in instrumentality were associated with greater self-esteem and lower academic contingent self-esteem. The association between instrumentality and global self-esteem was stronger for adolescent girls, and the indirect association between instrumentality and fear of failure through global self-esteem was significant only for girls. Results indicate that instrumentality can be an asset for students and that female students especially reap the benefits of an instrumental self-concept. The results are discussed in reference to the dangers of emphasizing solely the association between negative masculinity and academic failure, and the importance of studying relations with gender role self-concept separately for male and female adolescents.

Is gender role self-concept a predictor for music class attendance? Findings from secondary schools in Lower Saxony (Germany)

Although there is an increasing number of studies investigating the effects of attending music programs and classes, research on the impact of gender role self-concept on the decision to attend music classes is limited. Current research highlights the significance of gender role self-concept in decision-making processes. Accordingly, we conducted path analysis on a sample of n = 353 fifth-graders to identify interrelations and mediation effects of students’ gender role self-concept on the attendance of a specific music class through the self-concept in music, intrinsic value of music, and other relevant aspects. The results showed that only gender role self-concept of femininity revealed direct effects on attending a music class. Students describing themselves as feminine had a more positive self-concept in music and value music more. No mediation effects could be detected. However, a negative direct path from gender role self-concept of femininity on music class attendance was observed. No effect was found for gender role self-concept of masculinity and music class attendance. The intrinsic value for music showed the highest impact on music class attendance. After discussing the main results, recommendations for researchers, teachers, and school administrators are made with regard to an accessible music education, which is independent of gender role orientations.

Gender Differences in Digital Learning During COVID-19: Competence Beliefs, Intrinsic Value, Learning Engagement, and Perceived Teacher Support.

The spread of the COVID-19 pandemic quickly necessitated digital learning, which bore challenges for all pupils but especially for groups disadvantaged in a virtual classroom. As some studies indicate persistent differences between boys and girls in use of technologies and related skills, the aim of this study was to investigate gender differences in the digital learning environment students faced in spring 2020. Previous studies investigating gender differences in digital learning largely used biological sex as the only indicator of gender. This study includes both biological sex and gender role self-concept in order to investigate the role of gender in different components of this stereotyped domain in a more differentiated way. A total of 19,190 Austrian secondary school students (61.9% girls, Mage = 14.55, SDage = 2.49, age range 10–21) participated in an online study in April 2020 and answered questions regarding their competence beliefs, intrinsic value, engagement, and perceived teacher support in digital learning during the pandemic-induced school closures. Results showed higher perceived teacher support, intrinsic value, and learning engagement among girls than boys, while no significant sex differences were found in competence beliefs regarding digital learning. Furthermore, our results indicated clear benefits of an androgynous gender role self-concept for all studied components of digital learning. Implications of the findings for theory and practice are discussed.

Gender role self-concept at school start and its impact on academic self-concept and performance in mathematics and reading

This research investigates children’s self-ascriptions of feminine and masculine attributes (gender role self-concept) and whether they predict academic self-concepts and performance in gendered subject domains in their early Bildung-career. We suggest that as children incorporate gender stereotypes into their self-concept, perceptions of their competence (cognitive component of academic self-concepts), their affective-motivational reactions (affective component of academic self-concepts), as well as their performance in reading and mathematics are shaped accordingly. In a sample of 113 first graders we (1) measured gender role self-concept, and (2) analyzed its impact on children’s academic self-concepts and performance in mathematics and reading half a year later. As expected, girls ascribed comparatively more feminine and boys comparatively more masculine-stereotyped behaviors to themselves. Furthermore, the more feminine children described themselves the better was their reading performance half a year later, while no indirect effects, mediated via the academic self-concept, appeared. Also, the more masculine children described themselves, the higher were their mathematics related ability self-concepts half a year later, however, mathematics achievements were unrelated to any of the other variables. We discuss that future research needs to more systematically study the variables investigated in this research in children as they move from school start into third grade when the gender role self-concept as well as differences between girls and boys in their academic self-concepts, their liking for different school subjects, and their skills are well established.

Who makes use of Internet-delivered health information? The role of gender role self-concept in young men and women

This study examined the contribution of gender role self-concept (expressiveness and instrumentality) on active interest in and use of Internet-delivered health information among young men and women. Four hundred and twenty university students reported health behaviours and perceived personal vulnerability regarding five diseases. We analysed active interest in receiving health-related information concerning these diseases (providing email address to receive a link to health-related websites) and actual use of provided websites two weeks afterwards. Usage of health-related information via the Internet was objectively assessed by recording log-ins on the website and obtaining individual click counts. In both sexes, higher expressiveness was independently associated with being more likely to show active interest in health-related information. Additionally, expressiveness was positively associated with website use in men independent of age, personal vulnerability and reported health behaviours. Thus, an expressive self-concept facilitates the use of health-related information, especially among men.

The gender role self‐concept of men in female‐dominated occupations: does it depend on how they see their jobs?

AbstractIn this study, we investigated the masculinity of men in female‐dominated occupations. Our assumptions that token status, masculine task redefinition, and job control are related to masculinity were supported by results of segmented and hierarchical regressions with data from 213 men in female‐dominated occupations. A comparison with 98 men from male‐dominated occupations revealed that these results are specific for men in female‐dominated occupations. Moderated regression did not support the assumption that the relation between masculine task redefinition would be stronger under low job control. Instead, the opposite pattern was found. Under high job control, the choice of tasks and their redefinition as masculine may be easier. Job control is discussed as a precondition for redefinition processes.

Is School Feminine? Implicit Gender Stereotyping of School as a Predictor of Academic Achievement

One cause proposed for boys’ relatively lower academic achievement is a “feminisation” of schools that might result in a lack of fit between boys’ self-concept and academic engagement. Research so far has investigated math-male and language-female stereotypes, but no school-female stereotypes. Our study tested for implicit gender stereotyping of school and its impact on boys’ achievement in N = 122 ninth-graders from a large city in Western Germany using the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT). Gender role self-concept and grades in math (representing an academic domain stereotyped as male) and German (domain stereotyped as female) were assessed using written questionnaires. It was found that, overall, students associated school more strongly with female than with male, and that this association of school with female was related to boys’ academic achievement. The more strongly boys associated school with female and the more they ascribed negative masculine traits to themselves, the lower their grades in German were. Boys’ academic achievement in math was unrelated to the extent to which they perceived school as feminine and themselves as masculine. Girls’ grades in both German and math were unrelated to their gender stereotyping of school. These findings emphasize the importance of fit between a student’s gender, gender role self-concept and gender stereotyping of school for academic achievement. Strategies to improve this fit are discussed.

Gender Role Self-Concept, Categorical Gender, and Transactional-Transformational Leadership

Prior research has shown that female managers are more likely to display transactional–transformational leadership, but they are less likely than their male colleagues to benefit from this in terms of leadership effectiveness. The aim of this study is to address this intriguing finding. Our expectations were that female managers need masculinity so that their leadership can display positive effects on perceived workgroup performance, whereas androgyny would be advantageous in male managers. We collected data from 67 workgroups, and asked managers to report on their gender role self-concept as well as workgroup performance, and 473 workgroup members to report on their manager’s leadership style. Our analyses revealed that, expectedly, androgyny might be advantageous in male managers using contingent reward, intellectual stimulation, and charisma/inspiration. For female managers, however, a lack of gender-typical attributes might be disadvantageous, especially when using charisma/inspiration.

Macho-man in school: Toward the role of gender role self-concepts and help seeking in school performance

This study seeks to understand boys' lower academic success by analysing the relationship between sex, gender role self-concept, help seeking attitudes, and school performance in a sample of 182 German 11th grade students (83 girls, 99 boys), age 16. Grades at two points in time, intelligence test data, help-seeking attitudes, gender role self-concept (including socially desirable and socially undesirable masculine and feminine traits) were assessed. Controlling for intelligence, girls achieved better grades than boys. Girls reported more positive attitudes towards help seeking than boys. Positive femininity related positively, negative masculinity negatively, to help seeking. Negative masculinity mediated the relation between sex and grades. Mediation analyses focusing on change in school performance revealed that the influence of negative masculinity on boys' impairment in grades was partly explained by negative attitudes toward seeking help. Results are discussed with regard to the impact of a masculine gender role self-concept on academic help seeking.

Gender Role Self-Concept and Leisure Activities of Adolescents

The present study investigated the relevance of gender role self-concept to leisure activities of female and male adolescents. A sample of 310 Austrian adolescents (14 to 16 years old) participated in the study. Gender role self-concept was measured based upon a multi-dimensional conceptualization that includes positive and negative self-descriptions. Gender role self-concept significantly predicted female-typed and male-typed leisure activities in addition to participants’ gender and partially mediated the link between gender and female-typed leisure activities. The analyses revealed gender-congruent as well as gender-incongruent associations between both the positive female and male role self-concept and the gender-typed leisure activities. Self-description with socially undesirable masculine traits was related to antisocial activities like using drugs, but also with socializing and sports activities.

Gender Role Self-concept, Gender-role Conflict, and Well-being in Male Primary School Teachers

In this field-study, we analysed the interrelations between gender role self-concept, gender-role conflict, and well-being in male primary school teachers. Our sample comprised N = 81 respondents from an urban area in Germany (average age: 42.9 years; average tenure: 11.4 years). In Germany, primary school teaching is a numerically female-dominated occupation. We found that masculinity, femininity, and androgyny positively influenced well-being, while gender-role conflict was negatively interrelated with well-being. We expected that gender-role conflict weakens the positive effects of masculinity and femininity. Unexpectedly, we even found a detrimental effect of femininity when gender-role conflict was high: For respondents reporting comparatively high gender-role conflict, femininity was associated with lower work satisfaction.

Gender Subgroup Self-Categorization and Gender Role Self-Concept

The study examined the self-relevance of gender subgroups and differences concerning the gender role self-concept of self-categorized subgroup members. Subjects (198 women and 182 men) self-categorized themselves to gender subgroups and filled out self-concept questionnaires at locations in Austria that are stereotypical for the specific gender subgroups (e.g., playgrounds for housewives). People at a given location preferred a subgroup for self-categorization that corresponded with the stereotypicality of the location. Career women described themselves as less feminine than housewives and chicks. Machos and yuppies described themselves as more masculine than hippies and professors. Professors used more negative feminine gender traits for self-descriptions than the other male subgroups. Machos used more negative masculine gender traits for self-description than yuppies and hippies.

Cardiovascular reactivity in a simulated job interview: The role of gender role self-concept

This study investigated the relation of gender role self-concept (G-SC) to cardiovascular and emotional reactions to an ecologically relevant stressor in a sample of graduating male and female university students. Thirty-seven men and 37 women completed the Personal Attribute Questionnaire and worked on four tasks designed to reflect common features of a job interview. Blood pressure and heart rate were measured at baseline, during, and after each task; subjective stress was measured at baseline and after each task. Subjective and objective stress scores were averaged across tasks and analyzed by sex and G-SC (i.e., instrumentality, expressiveness). Results indicated that women as a group demonstrated greater emotional reactivity, but did not differ in their physiological reactions when compared to men. Regardless of sex, participants' instrumentality scores contributed significantly to the variation in subjective stress response: those scoring high on instrumentality reported less stress, but evidenced greater blood pressure reactivity than those scoring low on instrumentality. These results suggest that gender roles, particularly an instrumental self-concept, may play an important role in both subjective and objective reactions to an ecologically relevant stressor.

Gender Role Self-Concept and Gender-Typed Communication Behavior in Mixed-Sex and Same-Sex Dyads

The focus of this study was the relation between both gender role self-concept and gender role attitudes with gender-related behavior of interacting partners. We observed gender-typed communication behaviors of mixed-sex and same-sex dyads and measured gender role self-concept and gender role attitudes. Thirty mixed-sex dyads, 19 women dyads, and 15 men dyads participated in a behavior observation study. The results revealed that the activation of gender role self-concept varies depending on the gender of the interacting people. Furthermore, we found that context and gender of the interacting persons moderated the relation between self-concept and behavior. Participants' gender role attitudes did not correlate with their own behaviors but did with their partners' behaviors.

On the Content and Structure of the Gender Role Self-Concept: Including Gender-Stereotypical Behaviors in Addition to Traits

The present study introduces a conceptualization of gender role self-concept that implies not only the commonly measured socially desirable expressive and instrumental traits (F+ and M+) but also feminine and masculine behaviors (FBehav and MBehav), and socially undesirable gender traits (F- and M-). Three different models were tested using structural equation modeling. For both men and women, F+ and FBehav load together on one dimension whereas M+ and MBehav load on a second dimension. F- and M- are conceptualized as independent dimensions that are mainly related to the cross-gendered latent factor. With the exception of these similarities, the self-concepts of men and women differed in several important aspects that point to a different meaning of gender roles for the two sexes.

Professional Men's Attitudes toward Race and Gender Equity

This study examined adult men's attitudes toward race and gender equity and their sexual harassment proclivities in relation to male identity status and traditional masculinity ideology. It was hypothesized that a male identity characterized by dependence on a male reference group for one's gender role self-concept would be related to traditional attitudes about masculinity, and both would be associated with attitudes unsupportive of race and gender equity and attitudes conducive to the sexual harassment of women. Conversely, it was also hypothesized that a male identity characterized by not being dependent on a male reference group for one's gender role self-concept would be related to attitudes supportive of race and gender equity, not having attitudes conducive to the sexual harassment of women, and not endorsing traditional attitudes about masculinity. Support for both hypotheses was found, and implications of the findings for understanding men's psychosocial functioning are discussed.

Gender-Role Variables and Attitudes Toward Homosexuality

Two studies examined the relationships of gender-role variables to attitudes toward homosexuality. Study 1, a meta-analysis, found that endorsement of traditional gender-role beliefs, modern sexism, and hypermasculinity were related to attitudes, but that gender-role self-concept was not. Study 2 examined the relationships of endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, hostile sexism, benevolent sexism, modern sexism, hypermasculinity, and hyperfemininity to attitudes toward homosexuality and self-reported antigay behaviors in a college student sample. The best predictors of attitudes were participant gender, endorsement of male role norms, attitudes toward women, benevolent sexism, and modern sexism. The best predictors of antigay behavior were participant gender and hyper-gender-role orientation; attitudes toward women and modern sexism were also predictors for men but not for women.