Gender Role Beliefs Research Articles

Psychopathic traits, gender, and motivations for sex: Putative paths to sexual coercion.

Evidence suggests that both men and women perpetrate sexual coercion. Psychological factors, including psychopathic traits and power motivations, have been proposed to characterize male-perpetrated sexual coercion; however, it is unclear whether these factors play a similar role in female-perpetrated coercion or whether other motivations (e.g., intimacy, affect regulation) should be considered. To improve our understanding in this area, the current study first examined relationships between psychopathic traits and sexual coercion in a sample of 1199 undergraduate students (756 women), with gender as a potential moderator of these relationships. Second, the role of motivations for sex (e.g., power, affect regulation) in accounting for the psychopathy-coercion relationship was examined in men and women. Data were collected using an online survey and analyzed using multigroup path analysis. Results implicated impulsive-antisocial traits as particularly important to male-perpetrated verbal (e.g., manipulative) and nonverbal (e.g., physical) coercion, and that this relationship was partially explained by motives for sex involving power. In contrast, psychopathic traits did not appear to play a major role in female perpetrated coercion; instead, emotional value (i.e., intimacy-related) motivations for sex were associated with verbal (e.g., manipulation) coercion in women. In sum, our results support a conceptual model of male perpetration where men who are high in impulsive-antisocial traits may engage in sexual coercion in an attempt to feel powerful. Further, the findings in the female sample suggest that factors other than psychopathy, such as gender role beliefs in regard to sexual encounters, may be particularly important to female perpetrated sexually coercive behavior.

Gender-Related Ideological and Structural Macrosocial Factors Associated With Intimate Partner Violence Against European Women

Intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) is investigated mostly at the individual level, which ignores the role of macrosocial variables and possible interactions between them. We explored how two ideological gender-related macrosocial factors (traditional gender role beliefs and attitudes toward gender equality) and one structural gender-related macrosocial factor (the economic Gender Equality Index) are associated with physical, psychological, and sexual IPVAW in Europe. We examined their interactions with individual-level factors in predicting IPVAW. Secondary analysis ( N = 30,284 heterosexual women) of the 2015 European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights’ Violence Against Women survey revealed that 26.1% of women in Europe reported at least one act of physical, psychological, or sexual violence. Generalized linear mixed models analysis revealed that individual-level factors (women’s education, childhood victimization, equal say about income, partner’s alcohol consumption, and an aggressive partner) were associated with IPVAW. Adding the Eurobarometer of Gender Equality ( N = 28 countries) and the Gender Equality Index ( N = 28 countries), attitudes more favorable to gender equality were related to lower rates of psychological victimization; more traditional gender role beliefs predicted higher rates of sexual victimization. Ideological gender-related macrofactors played an important role in cross-level interactions with individual-level factors. To reduce the rates of IPVAW victimization, clinicians, educators, and policy makers need to focus on individual predictors and macrofactors to promote societal attitudes toward equality and change traditional gender role socialization. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/0361684319839367

Traditional Gender Role Beliefs and Career Attainment in STEM: A Gendered Story?

Gender role beliefs (i.e., beliefs about gender-specific responsibilities) predict one’s educational and occupational aspirations and choices (Eccles et al., 1983; Schoon and Parsons, 2002). Focusing on STEM careers, we aim to examine the extent to which traditional work/family related gender role beliefs (TGRB) in adolescence predict within and across gender differences in subsequent educational and STEM occupational attainment in adulthood. Using longitudinal data from the Michigan Study of Adolescent and Adult Life Transitions (N = 744; 58% female), participants’ educational attainment and their occupations were assessed at age 42. Their occupations were then categorized into three categories: traditional STEM-related careers in the physical sciences, mathematics, engineering, and technology (PMET); life sciences (e.g., health sciences, LS); and non-STEM. For females, TGRB at age 16/18 significantly predicted lower educational attainment as well as a lower likelihood to be in PMET-related occupations in comparison to non-STEM occupations – controlling for their own educational attainment. TGRB also predicted a higher likelihood to be in LS-related in comparison to PMET-related occupations. No significant associations were found for males. However, patterns of findings for males were similar to those of females. TGRB also mediated across gender differences in educational and PMET-related occupational attainment. Findings reveal TGRB to be one underlying psychological factor influencing gender disparity in educational and STEM occupational attainment.

The Effects of Media Use and Traditional Gender Role Beliefs on Tolerance of Homosexuality in China

Using the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) data collected in 2015, this study investigates the effects of traditional media use and Internet use on tolerance of homosexuality, and the extent to which traditional gender role beliefs can moderate these effects. The results show that, while Internet use had a positive effect on tolerance of homosexuality, exposure to traditional media was likely to inhibit such tolerance. Moreover, traditional gender role beliefs are found to be able to undermine the liberalizing effect of Internet use on tolerance of homosexuality. The implications of the findings for understanding attitudes toward homosexuality in China are discussed.

Origin-Country Culture, Migration Sequencing, and Female Employment: Variations among Immigrant Women in the United States

Recent studies suggest that the employment rates of foreign-born women are related to cultural norms regarding gender and work in their origin countries. However, origin-country culture may have less influence on the labor-supply decisions of women who self-select into migration precisely in order to pursue work abroad. Female migrants self-select on the basis of employment opportunities to varying extents, and it is hard to measure which ones do and which do not. We propose “migration sequencing” (the timing of married partners’ respective migrations) as a proxy for female migrant selectivity with respect to gender-role beliefs and work incentives: female lead migrants and individual (unmarried) migrants are, on average, more motivated by labor-market opportunities or human-capital formation than concurrent or follower migrants. Using data from the American Community Survey, we analyze employment rates of female immigrants to the United States from 130 countries. Our results confirm that sending-country cultural legacies have smaller effects for lead and unmarried migrants and the largest effect for follower migrants. Consistent with our theoretical reasoning, lead and unmarried migrants apparently self-select on economic motivations or less traditional gender norms more than do follower migrants, whose employment rates are thus more influenced by origin-country culture. The findings yield a more nuanced understanding of the variable role origin-country culture plays in immigrants’ structural incorporation in the United States and potentially in other destinations as well.

Will I, Wont I? Factors associated with self-reported prediction of future indulgence in intimate partner violence among adolescents in South India.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) refers to acts of physical/sexual violence, emotional/psychological abuse and controlling behaviour by a current or former intimate partner. Understanding the attitudes and perspectives of adolescents towards IPV can help in its prevention. The study aimed to assess the knowledge about various domains of IPV and self-reported prediction of perpetrating IPV among adolescents in Madurai city, South India. Students pursuing engineering, medicine and humanities were recruited conveniently. A structured self-administered questionnaire developed to cater to the objectives was used. After descriptive analysis, a modified Poisson regression with robust variance estimation was used to identify factors associated with one's self-reported prediction of becoming an IPV perpetrator and adjusted relative risks [0.95 confidence interval (CI)] were calculated. The project was approved by the Institute's Ethics Committee. Of the 369 students, 40% were aware of IPV prevalence among women in India. About 85% agreed with societally prescribed gender roles. More males than females found gender roles manifesting as IPV acceptable (p = 0.003). Only 6.8%, more females than males (p = 0.01), believed that no violence is permissible in intimate relationships. About 55% definitely did not foresee themselves becoming IPV perpetrators. Belief in gender roles [odds ratio (OR) = 3.85; 95% CI: 1.26, 11.74] and being a professional course student (2.48; 1.25, 4.91) were significantly associated with foreseeing oneself as an IPV perpetrator. Knowledge about IPV and its redressal mechanisms among adolescents is poor. A significant proportion of them believe in gender roles and perceive violence within an intimate relationship as acceptable. Positively influencing adolescents' beliefs in gender roles may help to control IPV and nurture healthier relationships.

Effects of Gay-Themed Advertising among Young Heterosexual Adults from U.S. and South Korea

Little research has been conducted to explain the effects of gay-themed advertising in a cross-cultural context. Such research has been particularly scarce in South Korea. This study is designed to investigate the effects of cultural orientation, gender, and types of gay-themed advertising in evaluation of gay male and female lesbian print ads. The study results indicate that Korean college students (i.e., collectivists) had lower tolerance of homosexuality than did U.S. college students (i.e., individualists). The study also finds that gender-role beliefs lead males to have lower tolerance of homosexuality. However, gender did not have statistically significant impacts on advertising and brand evaluation. Lastly, the study also found that lesbian imagery print ads could lead to greater tolerance of homosexuality and more favorable evaluations of the advertising and brand than could gay male imagery print ads. The current study sheds some light on the characteristics of U.S. consumers and Korean consumers on tolerance of homosexuality and gay-themed ads. Limitations and areas for further research are discussed.

Interpersonal Contact, Stereotype Acceptance, Gender Role Beliefs, Causal Attribution, and Religiosity as Predictors of Attitudes Toward Transgender Individuals

Interpersonal Contact, Stereotype Acceptance, Gender Role Beliefs, Causal Attribution, and Religiosity as Predictors of Attitudes Toward Transgender Individuals

The Relationship Between Gender-Role Beliefs, Household Labor Division and Marital Satisfaction in Couples

The Relationship Between Gender-Role Beliefs, Household Labor Division and Marital Satisfaction in Couples

Antecedents of gender gap in workforce participation: A phenomenology of psychologists and medical doctors in urban Pakistan

ABSTRACTIn recent years, the participation of young women in education has been on the rise and yet many of them do not end up joining the workforce. This is particularly true for the fields of medicine, and psychology. Using a qualitative research design, we explored underlying social and psychological reasons (antecedents) for this lack of professional participation by females who had or are graduating in medical and psychology degrees. The sample of this qualitative study consisted of 67 female informants including medical doctors, medical students, psychologists, and psychology students. The results based on interpretive phenomenological analyses (IPA) indicated multiple key antecedents that play a crucial role in keeping women from their professional participation in the two fields. Results based on IPA indicated that Gender Role Beliefs and Strain, Economic Decision Making, Women’s Mobility, Role of Society, Objectification of Women and explicit Discrimination and Violence were key thematic antecedents. There were multiple subthemes that emerged as reasons why women’s participation and stay in these fields was difficult, hence creating a substantial gender gap in professional participation and success in the workforce. Knowledge and understanding of these antecedents and their role in prevalence of gender gap in workforce participation is crucial for building policies and strategies on how to engage and retain women in professional work-force. Cultural relevance and societal implications of our findings are discussed with their policy recommendations.

Romantic involvement and adolescents' academic and psychosocial functioning in Chinese societies

This study explores the effects of romantic involvement and dating behaviors on adolescent academic and psychosocial functioning in Chinese societies, where adolescent dating is generally discouraged and believed to generate adverse outcomes. Adolescents (male = 48.6%; MeanAge = 15.20 years) from Taiwan (N = 1081) and mainland China (N = 684) were recruited through stratified sampling to complete self-report surveys on their academic performance, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, relationship status, and gender-role beliefs. Adolescents with current or past dating experiences were also asked about specific dating behaviors, such as the onset of dating, number of relationships, and breakup experiences. Approximately one-third of Chinese adolescents surveyed (34.2%) have past or ongoing dating experience, who showed poorer academic performance compared to never-dated teens. In the full sample, single adolescents with past dating experiences reported greater depressive symptoms than those currently dating or never-dated teens. Boys with past dating experience showed higher self-esteem than their currently dating or never-dated peers, whereas single girls with past dating experience showed lower self-esteem than their currently dating or never-dated counterparts. Among adolescents with dating experience, early dating, over-dating, sexual activities, and breakup experiences can undermine their academic and psychosocial well-being. These findings have significant implications for practice and policy regarding adolescent education and mental health.

Religiosity or ideology? On the individual differences predictors of sexism

The present set of studies investigated the role of both religiosity and social-ideological attitudes in the prediction of various forms of sexist and gender-related attitudes. Hierarchical regression analyses on data collected in three countries (i.e., two heterogeneous adult samples from Turkey and the Netherlands, and two student samples from Belgium; combined N = 964) revealed that although individual differences in religiosity did predict traditional gender role beliefs and sexism (towards both women and men), its impact was limited compared to the impact of individual differences in social-ideological attitudes (i.e., social dominance orientation and particularly authoritarianism). In the discussion, we argue that sexism primarily relates to individual differences in peoples' perspective on the social world, and that religiosity explains little additional variance.

An Exploratory Study of Predictors of Relationship Commitment for Cisgender Female Partners of Transgender Individuals.

The current exploratory study investigates which variables predict commitment among cisgender women currently in a relationship with a transgender-identified partner. This study includes variables specific to gender diverse couples such as years in the relationship, amount of prior knowledge about transgender identity, and gender role beliefs. Also included are the general relationship factors of satisfaction, quality of alternatives, investment size, and the outcome variable of commitment, as described in the Investment Model of Commitment. Using convenience sampling from online support groups, the sample was n=138 cisgender female partners. The findings of the regression analyses indicate one's personal resilience and the number of years in the relationship prior to transition are significantly related to partner commitment, with satisfaction mediating both associations. The longer a participant was in the relationship at the time of a gender transition of a partner, the less satisfaction they report, thus reducing commitment to the relationship. Additionally the more personal resilience a partner endorses, the higher the relationship satisfaction, and in turn, more commitment is reported. The results offer information about the important factors related to staying in relationships during and after a gender transition.

Gender Nonconformity Is Perceived Differently for Cisgender and Transgender Targets

The present research examined the role gender non-conformity plays in attitudes toward transgender people. Study 1 with 232 U.S college students focused on attitudes toward female targets; Study 2 with 217 U.S. college students focused on male targets; and Study 3 with 462 mTurk workers directly compared attitudes toward female and male targets. In all three studies, participants read a vignette depicting either a transgender or cisgender target who presents as either gender conforming or gender nonconforming. In all three studies, we found that gender nonconforming targets and transgender targets were perceived as more threatening to the distinction between men and women, and in two of the studies, we found that gender conforming transgender targets were more threatening than conforming cisgender targets. We also found that anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs (Studies 1 and 2), and biological gender essentialism (Study 3) moderated these effects. Transgender targets who conform to the traditional binary gender role associated with their gender expression are perceived as transgressing distinct binary gender boundaries, which may be threatening because “passing” transgender individuals are harder to detect as transgressors and because their “passing” challenges the belief that gender is biologically essential and immutable. Furthermore, as anti-transgender prejudice, traditional gender role beliefs, and gender essentialist beliefs increase, liking decreased and threat increased for transgender and gender nonconforming targets. Working to alter gender essentialist beliefs may be a route to reducing anti-transgender prejudice.

Redistribution and the Individualism–Collectivism Dimension of Culture

This paper examines the relationship between culture and redistribution, focusing on the individualism–collectivism dimension of culture. Perhaps surprisingly, countries with more individualistic cultures have significantly greater income redistribution and lower after-tax income inequality. This finding also holds when using instruments for individualism suggested by the literature on cross-cultural psychology, including historical pathogen prevalence and linguistic and genetic characteristics. The association between individualism and redistribution is driven by higher-income countries, which appear to be influenced by a distinct strain of individualism. Data from the World Values Survey reveals that in higher income countries, individualism is positively correlated with generalized trust and tolerance of outsiders and negatively correlated with belief in traditional gender roles. In lower income countries, individualism is associated with a stronger emphasis on self-reliance and the benefits of competition.

Gender role beliefs, work-family conflict, and father involvement after the birth of a second child.

A major task for parents during the transition to second-time parenthood is to help their firstborn adjust to their new roles as siblings. Increased father involvement has been theorized to be protective for firstborn adjustment. Fathers, however, are under increasing pressure to balance both work and family responsibilities. Here we evaluate fathers' relative involvement in two-child families as a function of family structure, gender role beliefs, and work-family conflict in 222 dual- and single-earner families from the Midwestern region of the United States after the birth of a second child. Couples reported on father involvement with firstborns and infants when the infants were 1, 4, 8, and 12 months old. On average, fathers increased their involvement with infants but decreased their involvement with firstborns. Dual-earner fathers were more involved with their children than single-earner fathers. Although mean levels of father involvement were different between dual- and single-earners, multi-group parallel process trajectory latent growth curve models revealed more similarities than differences between dual- and single-earners in processes guiding father involvement. Both dual- and single-earner fathers engaged in juggling childcare between children and both dual- and single-earner fathers' involvement with infants was constrained by work-family conflict. Gender role beliefs predicted child care involvement for dual-earner, but not single-earner fathers: more egalitarian gender roles predicted greater involvement with the firstborn immediately after the birth of the second child. Results underscore the need for greater workplace support for fathers' caregiving roles after the birth of an infant.

Development of a Transgender and Gender Nonconforming Language Self-Efficacy Scale for Social Service Providers Working With Older Adults

There is consensus that providers who work with transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) older adults should use the language preferred by the older adult; however, assessment tools to document professional training efforts are lacking. This study presents data on a new TGNC Language Self-Efficacy Scale, using responses collected from employees and volunteers of area agencies on aging (AAA) across the United States (N = 155). Exploratory factor analysis supports a two-factor model: Interactions and Information subscales significantly correlated with knowledge of TGNC terminology, genderism and transphobia, gender role beliefs, beliefs about gender and gender identity, and attitudes toward lesbians and gay men. Future directions include additional measurement development work and replication of these findings outside of AAAs.

Traditional Gender Roles and the Stress–Alcohol Relationship among Latina/o College Students

ABSTRACTBackground: Latina/o college students have been shown to engage in more high risk drinking behavior than students from other ethnic minority groups, and are more likely to experience certain negative alcohol related consequences as a result of drinking. Previous research links stress to drinking among college students and indicates drinking occurs within a gendered context. Although this suggests an effect of gender role socialization, studies exploring these relationships among Latina/os are lacking. Objectives: To explore potential relationships of stress, gender role prescriptions of the heritage culture, and drinking among Latina/o college students. Specifically, to explore potential interactions between stress and multiple dimensions of machismo and marianismo as related to alcohol use. Method: Latina/o undergraduates (N = 248) completed a questionnaire. Self-reported stress, quantity of alcohol consumption, and frequency of binge drinking were recorded for all participants. Gender role prescriptions were assessed via endorsement of two dimensions of machismo (men) or two dimensions of marianismo (women). Results: Stress was positively related to general quantity for women. Each dimension of machismo was distinctly related to binge drinking for men. Significant interactions emerged between both machismo and marianismo and stress as related to both alcohol use outcomes. For women, the moderating pattern between marianismo and stress varied according to type of alcohol use. Conclusions/Importance: Gender role beliefs influence the relationship between stress and alcohol use among Latina/o college students. Future research should account for the intersection of gender and culture when considering the stress-alcohol relationship.

Determinants of heterosexual men's attitudes toward gay men and lesbians in Chile

ABSTRACTWe studied the effects of different sets of sociopolitical variables on attitudes toward gay men and lesbians in a Chilean sample of heterosexual men (n = 121). Based on these data, a hierarchical linear regression was performed, with the dependent variable being attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Results reveal the importance of two variables, authoritarian aggression and gender role beliefs, which are relevant for both gay men (β = .27 and β = .44, respectively) and lesbian (β = .30 and β = .36, respectively) assessment. The only difference in the assessment of both groups is that conventionalism (β = .22) is relevant for evaluating gay men, while for lesbians the relevant variable is authoritarian submission (β = .22). These results are important because they indicate that heterosexual men make a differential assessment on the basis of two variables: adhesion to dominant values (being a fundamental dimension in the case of gay men) and degree of submission or attachment to an alleged legitimate authority which ends up in keeping them in an inferior condition (fundamental in the case of lesbians). When these values and social hierarchy are questioned, the level of negative attitudes may be more evident.

Understanding change in violence-related attitudes for adolescents in relationship education

Relationship education (RE) targets common correlates of adolescent dating violence (ADV), such as gender role beliefs (GRB) and DV acceptance (DVA), yet few studies have evaluated the influence of RE on GRB and DVA and none have considered participants' sociodemographic characteristics. Using a sample of adolescents from the United States (Mage = 15.66 years; 58% female), this study examined pre- and post-test GRB and DVA scores of RE participants (n = 1645) compared to nonparticipants (n = 522) and explored the differential and combined effects of participants' sociodemographic characteristics on change. Black males held the most traditional GRB at pre-test, but became more egalitarian after programming. RE participation also appeared to act as a buffer against an increase in DVA for females, but not males. Study findings provide a more complex picture of the role of RE in shifting beliefs and attitudes associated with ADV and provide implications for programming.