Gender Role Behavior Research Articles

Psychosexual Development in Children with Disorder of Sex Development (DSD) – Results from the German Clinical Evaluation Study

Psychosexual development is influenced by biological and psychosocial factors. Human beings show a great variability in psychosexual development both between and within gender-groups. However, there are relatively stable gender-related behaviors and self-perceptions, in which males and females differ distinctly. There is strong evidence that high concentrations of androgens lead to more male-typical behavior and that this also influences gender identity. Disorders of sex development (DSD) provide the opportunity to analyze the role of different factors on psychosexual development. We examined 166 children age 4 to 12 with DSD using instruments concerning gender role behavior, gender identity, and friendship. Results underline the hypothesis, that androgens play a decisive role in the masculinization of gender role behavior in children. There are also some relations between the experience of gender change and psychosexual outcomes which have to be discussed. Nevertheless, results indicated a high congruence between the children's gender identity and gender of rearing.

Gene- and Environment-Dependent Neuroendocrine Etiogenesis of Homosexuality and Transsexualism

Sexual brain organization is dependent on sex hormone and neurotransmitter levels occurring during critical developmental periods. The higher the androgen levels during brain organization, caused by genetic and/or environmental factors, the higher is the biological predisposition to bi- and homosexuality or even transsexualism in females and the lower it is in males. Adrenal androgen excess, leading to heterotypical sexual orientation and/or gender role behavior in genetic females, can be caused by 21-hydroxylase deficiency, especially when associated with prenatal stress. The cortisol (F) precursor 21-deoxycortisol (21-DOF) was found to be significantly increased after ACTH stimulation in homosexual as compared to heterosexual females. 21-DOF was increased significantly before and even highly significantly after ACTH stimulation in female-to-male transsexuals. In view of these data, heterozygous and homozygous forms, respectively, of 21-hydroxylase deficiency represent a genetic predisposition to androgen-dependent development of homosexuality and transsexualism in females. Testicular androgen deficiency in prenatal life, giving rise to heterotypical sexual orientation and/or gender role behavior in genetic males, may be induced by prenatal stress and/or maternal or fetal genetic alterations. Most recently, in mothers of homosexual men--following ACTH stimulation--a significantly increased prevalence of high 21-DOF plasma values and 21-DOF/F ratios was found, which surpassed the mean + 1 SD level of heterosexual control women. In homosexual men as well--following ACTH stimulation--most of the 21-DOF plasma values and 21-DOF/F ratios also surpassed the mean + 1 SD level of heterosexual men. In only one out of 9 homosexual males, neither in his blood nor in that of his mother increased 21-DOF values and 21-DOF/F ratios were found after ACTH stimulation. In this homosexual man, however, the plasma dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S) values and the DHEA-S/1000 x A (A = androstenedione) ratio were increased before and after ACTH stimulation. Furthermore, highly significantly increased basal plasma levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate were found in male-to-female transsexuals as compared to normal males, suggesting partial 3 beta-ol hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency to be a predisposing factor for the development of male-to-female transsexualism.

Sex-specific gonadotrophin secretion, sexual orientation and gender role behaviour.

Several experimental and clinical findings suggest that different sex hormones (oestrogens and/or androgens) are responsible for sex-specific brain differentiation of gonadotrophin secretion, sexual orientation and gender role behaviour.

Effects of neonatal intracerebral implantation of sex steroids on sexual behaviour, social play behaviour and gonadotrophin secretion.

Female rats were intracerebrally implanted with testosterone propionate (TP) or 5 alpha-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) on the 3rd day of life. After both treatments, prepuberal social play behaviour was significantly enhanced as compared to control females and did not differ from that recorded in males. In contrast, intracerebral implantation of oestradiol benzoate (OB) at the same day of age had no effect on the frequency with which females engaged in social play. DHT, which is not aromatizable to oestrogen, showed a significant male-type organizational effect also on sexual orientation but not on the organization of gonadotrophin secretion pattern and hence on ovarian weight. On the other hand, OB displayed in a dose-dependent manner a significant male-type organizational effect on gonadotrophin secretion resulting in an anovulatory syndrome with significantly decreased ovarian weights due to failure of corpus luteum formation as well as on male-type sexual orientation. The results suggest that different sex hormones (oestrogens and/or androgens) are responsible for the sex-specific brain differentiation of gonadotrophin secretion, sexual orientation and gender role behaviour.

Gender Role Behavior, Sexuality, and Psychosocial Adaptation in Women with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia due toCYP21A2Deficiency

Gender-atypical behavior has been described in young girls as well as in women with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) due to a CYP21A2 deficiency. The aim of the study was to assess health-related, psychosexual, and psychosocial parameters and correlate the results to CYP21A2 genotype. Sixty-two Swedish women with CAH and age-matched controls completed a 120-item questionnaire and a validated quality of life instrument [psychological general well-being (PGWB) formula] to identify psychosexual and psychosocial parameters. The patients were divided into four CYP21A2 genotype groups. The women with CAH held more male-dominant occupations (30%) compared to controls (13%) (P = 0.04), especially those in the null genotype group (55%) (P = 0.006). They also reported a greater interest in rough sports (74%) compared to controls (50%) (P = 0.007). Eight women with CAH (14%) reported a prime interest in motor vehicles, compared to none of the controls (P = 0.002). Non-heterosexual orientation was reported by 19% of women with CAH (P = 0.005), 50% in the null genotype group (P = 0.0001), 30% in I2 splice (NS), and 5% in I172N (NS). PGWB total score did not differ between patients and controls. We identified increased gender-atypical behavior in women with CAH that could be correlated to the CYP21A2 genotype. This speaks in favor of dose-dependent effects of prenatal androgens on the development of higher brain functions. The impact of the disease on upbringing and interpersonal relationships did not correlate with disease severity, indicating that other factors, such as coping strategies, are important for psychosocial adaptation. This illustrates the need for psychological support to parents and patients.

Teaching Children to Confront Peers’ Sexist Remarks: Implications for Theories of Gender Development and Educational Practice

Elementary-school children (81 boys, 72 girls, aged 5–10 years) in the Southwest United States were taught to challenge peers’ sexist remarks to (a) improve school climate for gender nontraditional children, (b) decrease children’s gender-typed attitudes, and (c) test hypotheses linking gender identity and peer-directed gender role behaviors. Children either practiced using retorts to peers’ sexist remarks (practice condition) or heard stories about others’ retorts (narrative condition). At pretest, children rarely challenged peers’ sexist remarks. At posttest, children’s challenges were significantly more common in the practice than narrative condition. At the 6-month posttest, data showed intervention effects had become more widespread. Behavioral changes led to decreases in gender-typing of others among girls but not boys.

Early Gender Role Behavior And Adolescent Physical Activity

Physical activity (PA) levels are higher in boys than girls and decline throughout adolescence, particularly in girls. Among pre-school children, differences in gender-role behaviour are already apparent. PURPOSE: To examine the prospective association between early gender-role behaviour and PA at age 12. METHODS: At age 12, children from Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children were asked to wear an accelerometer for 7 days. PA outcome was counts/min. Gender role behaviour was assessed using the Pre-school Activities Inventory (PSAI) at age 3 1/2. The PSAI measures how often a child plays with sex-typical toys, games and activities. It was completed by the main carer. Multivariable regression was used to examine the associations between the PSAI and PA. Analyses were done separately for boys and girls, as there was evidence of a gender-PSAI interaction (p= 0.008). RESULTS: Accelerometer data were collected from 5595 children, mean age 11.8 years. For PA, means (SD) were 661 counts/min (185) for boys (n=2593) and 552 counts/min (152) for girls (n=2858). For PSAI scores means (SD; min-max scores) were 61.7 (8.7; 20.8-95.6) for boys (n=2290) and 37.0 (9.1; 8.7-72.5) for girls (n=2445) i.e., higher scores signify more male-typical behaviour. The Table shows the associations, stronger among boys than girls, for each model per SD change in the exposure variable.TableCONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that more male-typical behaviour in early childhood is associated with higher levels of PA in early adolescence, particularly in boys. Although the association is small, it is notable that a general measure of sex-typical behaviour in early childhood is able to predict adolescent PA. Supported by NIH Grant R01 HL071248-01A1

Gender identity affirmation among male-to-female transgender persons: a life course analysis across types of relationships and cultural/lifestyle factors

Disclosures of a transgender identity to others, and responses from others allowing for desired gender role behavior, are defining events for male-to-female (MTF) transgender persons. This study systematically examined these interpersonal acts of gender identity affirmation among 571 MTF transgender persons from New York City. Using the Life Chart Interview, biographical information about gender identity disclosure to others and desired gender role casting from others was obtained across stages of the life course (early adolescence, late adolescence, early adulthood, young adulthood and middle age) and types of relationships (parents, siblings, sexual partners, friends, fellow students and co-workers). Summaries of gender identity disclosure and gender role casting were then computed across the life course and relationships and associated with sexual orientation, ethnicity and sex work history (cultural/lifestyle factors). The two aspects of gender identity affirmation were, predictably, more likely in achieved (i.e. friends) as compared to ascribed (i.e. parents) relationships. Younger respondents (age 19–39) were generally more likely to report gender identity disclosure and desired gender role casting. Strong and highly significant differences were observed across cultural/lifestyle factors. Implications of these findings for the mental health of MTF transgender persons, and mental health therapy, are discussed.

Gendered Relationships on Television: Portrayals of Same-Sex and Heterosexual Couples

Although intimate heterosexual couples often exhibit power imbalances in gender role behaviors, with one partner more dominant and the other more submissive, it is unclear whether the same is true for homosexual relationships. Anecdotal evidence, however, suggests that television portrays both heterosexual and homosexual couples as gendered. This content analysis of intimate relationships on television examined whether heterosexual and homosexual couples are portrayed as gendered, finding evidence of gendering for both homosexual couples and heterosexual couples. Possible implications of these gendered portrayals for viewers' perceptions and behaviors include cultivation of negative stereotypes and modeling of gender-typed behaviors.

Is there an ideal age for hypospadias repair? A pilot study

To assess whether repairing hypospadias before or after 18 months affects psychological adjustment, health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and surgical outcome. Seventy-seven boys aged 6-17 years were assigned to one of two groups, according to whether they had a hypospadias repair before or after the age of 18 months. The surgical outcome was assessed using the pediatric penile perception score by non-involved urologists. A psychologist interviewed the patients to assess HRQoL and gender-role behavior. The child's psychological adjustment was assessed with a questionnaire for parents. The surgical outcome and complication rate were not significantly different between groups. A covariance analysis of HRQoL, gender-role behavior and psychological adjustment as a function of age at the last operation with current age as covariant was performed, but differences did not reach significance. This study does not provide evidence to support recommendations concerning the ideal age for hypospadias repair. In the absence of evidence of a benefit of early surgery, anesthesia-related risk factors must be considered when operating in very early infancy. Large, prospective studies, measuring surgical and psychological outcome with similar instruments to those presented may reveal whether there is a true ideal age for hypospadias surgery.

Prenatal Phthalate Exposure and Gender Role Behavior in Preschool Children from Central Taiwan

Prenatal Phthalate Exposure and Gender Role Behavior in Preschool Children from Central Taiwan

Questionnaire Scales for the Assessment of Atypical Gender Development in Girls and Boys

To facilitate the assessment of problems of gender identity development in both physically normal and intersexual children, we describe the modification of an existing parent-administered questionnaire for boys and the development of an analogous new questionnaire for girls. Pertinent items were drawn from the literature and from our own case material. Questionnaires were administered as part of a battery to a demographically diverse community sample of the parents of 687 boys and girls age 6-10 years. Scales assessing aspects of gender role behavior and identity (gender scales) were constructed on the basis of the results of a factor analysis. By design, the scales permit the characterization of a child's gender-role behavior and identity in relation to both gendertypical boys and gender-typical girls. The gender scales show appropriate internal consistency. Demonstration of validity is complemented by clinical case illustrations. As indicated by hierarchical regression analysis, the demographic factor...

Gender Differences In Pretend Play Amongst School Children In Durban, Kwazulu-Natal, South Africa

Children begin to engage in pretend play, develop receptive and expressive language, and use mental representation at approximately the same time in their development. The researchers set out to investigate whether boys and girls have different fantasy worlds. The study thus explores gender differences in pretend play in children between the ages of 3 and 5 years, in the pre-school section of a local primary school in Durban, KwazuluNatal, regarding gender influences on pretend play. The paper further examines the implications of the findings for child-care and gender role socialization Gender and Behaviour Vol. 6 (1) 2008: pp. 1577-1590

Psychosexual Development of Children and Adolescents with Hypospadias

Hypospadias is the most common malformation of the penis. Despite the common assumption that hypospadias may affect children's psychosexual development, only a few studies report on the patients' psychosexual adjustment during childhood and adolescence. A comprehensive, cross-sectional investigation of the psychosexual development of boys operated on for hypospadias in comparison to a healthy control group. Sixty-eight children and adolescents (7-17 years) operated on for hypospadias were examined by means of a standardized interview assessing penile self-perception, gender-role behavior, sexual experiences, and sexual attitude. Scores were compared to an age-matched control group consisting of 68 boys after hernia repair. Predictive values of medical variables as well as the patients' knowledge of hypospadias were assessed. The Pediatric Penile Perception Score, the Gender-Role Questionnaire by Ijntema and Cohen-Kettenis, and a self-developed questionnaire on first sexual experiences and sexual attitude comprised the standardized assessment instruments. Boys with hypospadias did not significantly differ from the control subjects with regard to penile self-perception, gender-role behavior, first sexual experiences, and sexual attitude. Younger age and the patient's knowledge of hypospadias predicted a more positive penile self-perception, while a more pronounced masculine gender-role behavior was best predicted by younger age at final surgery. Boys with corrected hypospadias may show a psychosexual development that is similar to healthy children. Puberty could be a critical time for the patients, however, during which they might require regular urological follow-ups and may benefit from age-appropriate information about their penile condition. Moreover, the later corrective surgery is completed, the more likely the patients may become insecure with regard to gender-role behavior.

Toy story: Why do monkey and human males prefer trucks?: Comment on “Sex differences in rhesus monkey toy preferences parallel those of children” by Hassett, Siebert and Wallen

Parents of young children will tell you that boys like different toys than girls; they are intrigued by Bob the Builder, Transformers of all kinds, trucks, police cars, front loaders, bikes, skate boards, and wagons. Girls too like bikes, cars and Legos, but also play with stuffed animals and dolls, toys that boys find less appealing for active play. Is this difference in toy preference due exclusively to socialization by parents, other children, and the media, or are there basic perception/action differences between males and females that make some toys a better “fit” for or more attractive to one sex than another? In this issue, Hassett et al. (2008) provide evidence that male and female rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) of all ages and ranks show preferences for wheeled and plush toys that resemble the preferences shown by human children in many studies of toy choice. This cross-species demonstration of male–female differences in toy choice strongly supports and extends prior work with humans (e.g., Berenbaum and Hines, 1992; Campbell et al., 2000; Pasterski et al., 2005; Serbin et al., 2001) and vervet monkeys (Alexander and Hines, 2002) showing that sexually dimorphic toy preferences reflect basic neurobiological differences between males and females and are not caused solely by socialization, as has been suggested by cognitive-social theories of gender role behavior (Caldera et al., 1989; Carter and Levy, 1988; Pomerleau et al., 1990; Roopnarine, 1986). Despite repeated demonstrations of sex differences in toy choice that are difficult to explain by socialization alone (e.g. Alexander, 2003; Nordenstrom et al., 2002; Meyer-Balhberg et al., 2004; Pasterski et al., 2005; Serbin et al., 2001), there has been considerable resistance to the idea that toy choice/preference is influenced by genetics and hormones, in part, because the wheeled and mechanical toys that males prefer are not part of our evolutionary history. How could male brains evolve to prefer objects that did not even exist when our modern Homo sapiens brain was shaped by adaptive forces? What is it about toys that make them “male” or “female”? Toy preference is a complex cognitive process determined by sensory, perceptual and motor processes; what sexually dimorphic neural mechanisms control these differences? The findings of Hassett and colleagues have important implications for all of these issues.

The Relationships among the Differences in Gender Role Behaviors between Work and Family Domain,Behavioral Transfer, and Work-Family Balance

The Relationships among the Differences in Gender Role Behaviors between Work and Family Domain,Behavioral Transfer, and Work-Family Balance

Lifting the Veil: African American Images and the European American Gaze

Patricia Hill Collins presents and discusses gender and gender role norms, behaviors, and ideologies among African Americans in an interdisciplinary diagnostic endeavor that calls attention to health, economic, behavioral, and psychosocial patterns related to social injustice and inequality. Collins presents several popular culture, mass media, and social science literature topics that call for a progressive Black sexual politics necessary for African American empowerment. A most crucial and apparent point of Collins's discussion is that improvement in the lives of African Americans requires inspection and analysis of gender and sexuality related intragroup variation and diversity. I situate this discussion primarily within a post-civil rights ideological revolution related to the European American “gaze,” multiculturalism, and European American emotional ambivalence toward the Black body. It is proposed that Collins's analysis of the intersectionality of race, gender, and sexuality among African Americans occurs within an American context that reciprocally impacts African American intragroup dynamics.

Empirical Investigations of the MMPI-2 Gender-Masculine and Gender-Feminine Scales

Empirical Investigations of the MMPI-2 Gender-Masculine and Gender-Feminine Scales

Sexual Issues: The Analysis of Female Role Portrayal Preferences in Taiwanese Print Ads

For a long time, female endorsers in advertising have been doing product information promotion in the market. However, with more and more highly educated women participating in the labor force, the conception of feminist depictions in advertising have become a perplexing issue. The traditional female role portrayals or stereotypes of the past are not able to totally reflect the expectations, behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of contemporary women. The author collected print ads as data from three types of the highest circulation magazines: foreign women’s magazines (Chinese edition), domestic women’s magazines, and domestic management magazines subscribed to in Taiwan to investigate what were the favorite feminine patterns and feminist depictions in a traditionally masculine society. The results showed classical beauty and girl-next-door images were “acceptable” gender-role behavior exposed highly in domestic magazines, which might contribute to conservative Confucian beliefs. On the other hand, being trendy was a significantly high preference for contemporary feminist depictions in foreign women's magazines; it might be considered as being due to the increased educational level of women and female labor participation rate in the work place as well as upgrading of social status.

A Psychosexual Follow-Up Study of Patients with Mixed or Partial Gonadal Dysgenesis

Study Objective To provide late adolescent and young adult psychosexual follow-up information on a consecutive series of patients with either mixed or partial gonadal dysgenesis. Setting Children's Memorial Health Institute (Warsaw, Poland). Participants 19 patients (age range, 17–26 years), 9 raised as females and 10 raised as males. Measures Clinical interview and psychologic tests were used to evaluate gender identity, gender role, and sexual behavior. Results All patients raised as male had a normal male gender identity, displayed masculine gender role behavior in childhood, and had a heterosexual sexual orientation. Seven of the 10 male patients had experienced heterosexual intercourse. Two out of nine women did not identify with the female gender. The majority had masculine gender role interests in childhood. The female patients were significantly less likely to have experienced sexual activity with a partner than the male patients. Conclusion Although gender identity differentiated largely in accordance with sex assignment or sex of rearing in our sample, the patients reared as female appeared to have poorer sexual adjustment than the males. Cultural factors may have impacted on this latter outcome.