Gender-related Variables Research Articles

Sex Differences in Cardiovascular Risk Profiles of Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis: Results from an Italian Multicentre Cohort.

Objective: The effect of sex and gender-related variables on the evaluation of cardiovascular (CV) risk in rheumatoid arthritis patients has been poorly explored. We investigated the differences in CV risk features and scores according to sex in a wide rheumatoid arthritis (RA) cohort. Methods: This is a cross-sectional analysis of a consecutive RA cohort. Disease-specific clinical and serologic variables, traditional CV risk factors and the 10-year CV risk calculated by the SCORE-2, Progetto CUORE and Expanded Risk Score-RA algorithms were compared in males and females. Results: A total of 820 patients (193 men, 627 women) were included. Disease activity was similar between the two sexes. A significantly higher prevalence of traditional CV risk factors and higher mean CV risk scores were detected in male compared to female patients. In the multiple linear regression analysis, a higher HAQ, csDMARD use and ACPA positivity were significantly associated with an increased CV risk in females, while b/tsDMARDs was associated with a lower CV risk in males according to different algorithms. Conclusions: The distribution of traditional CV risk factors and the 10-year risk of CV disease significantly differed in female and male patients despite similar disease activity. Disease-specific variables may contribute differently to CV risk according to sex. The CV screening in RA should also take into account the different distribution of CV risk factors between sexes.

Gender Selectively Mediates the Association Between Sex and Memory in Cognitively Normal Older Adults.

Sex and gender are important topics of increasing interest in aging and dementia research. Few studies have jointly examined sex (as a biological attribute) and gender (as a sociocultural and behavioral characteristic) within a single study. We explored a novel data mining approach to include both sex and gender as potentially related influences in memory aging research. Participants were 746 cognitively normal older adults from the Victoria Longitudinal Study. First, we adapted the Gender Outcomes INternational Group: To Further Well-being Development (GOING-FWD) framework-which is informed by gender dimensions of the Women's Health Research Network-to identify, extract, and operationalize gender-related variables in the database. Second, we applied principal component analysis (PCA) to a pool of potential gender variables for creating empirically derived gender-related components. Third, we verified the expected pattern of sex differences in memory performance and evaluated each gender-related component as a potential mediator of the observed sex-memory association. Systematic data mining produced a roster of potential gender-related variables, 56 of which corresponded to gender dimensions represented in the GOING-FWD framework. The PCA revealed 6 gender-related components (n indicators = 37): Manual Non-Routine Household Tasks, Subjective Memory Beliefs, Leisure Free Time, Social and Routine Household Management, Health Perceptions and Practices, and Brain Games. We observed sex differences in latent memory performance whereby females outperformed males. Sex differences in memory performance were mediated by Manual Non-Routine Household Tasks, Social and Routine Household Management, and Brain Games. Follow-up analyses showed that education also mediated the sex-memory association. We show that (i) data mining can identify and operationalize gender-related variables in archival aging and dementia databases, (ii) these variables can be examined for associations with sex, and (iii) sex differences in memory performance are mediated by selected facets of gender.

P030 EFFECTS OF GENDER-RELATED FACTORS ON THE HYPERTENSION-WHITE MATTER HYPERINTENSITIES ASSOCIATION: A SEX-STRATIFIED ANALYSIS

Background: Hypertension (HTN) is a global health issue affecting various vascular beds, including the brain. There is a gap in understanding how gender-related factors, such as roles, identity, relationships, and institutionalized gender, contribute to sex differences in the relationship between HTN and brain structure changes. This study aims to investigate the role of gender-related factors in the relationship between HTN and white matter hyperintensities (WMH) in both males and females. Methods: This cohort study used MRI data from 41,300 UK Biobank participants. HTN status was determined through hospital records and self-report, and WMH volumes were measured using MRI. Eight gender-related factors, including unpaid work, caregiving, unemployment, risk-taking behavior, living alone, education, income, and material deprivation, were examined. Generalized linear models were used to evaluate the interactions between each gender-related factor and HTN in males and females. Effect modification was evaluated using the Z-test to compare the beta coefficients of the HTN-WMH association across strata. Results: The study included 19,260 males and 22,040 females aged 40-69 years at baseline, with 27.3% hypertensive. Hypertensive males (7.7±9.2 mL) and females (7.2±8.8 mL) exhibited greater WMH volumes compared to their normotensive counterparts (males: 4.7±5.9 mL; females: 3.9±5.2 mL). The main effects model revealed that low income was significantly associated with greater WMHs in females, while no gender-related factors were linked to WMHs in males after adjusting for clinical, behavioral, and gender-related variables. No significant interactions between HTN and gender-related factors were found in either males or females after adjustment. In the stratified analysis, females with lower material deprivation showed a significantly greater increase in WMHs compared to those with higher material deprivation. No other gender-related factors in either group interacted with HTN to amplify the association with WMHs. Discussion: Socioeconomic factors, particularly in females, were associated with WMH. These findings highlight the importance of considering biological and social determinants to address hypertension risks effectively.

Validating the Stanford Gender-Related Variables for Health Research (SGVHR) in a Canadian population.

In addition to biological sex, the impact of gender on health outcomes is now well-recognized. Gender norms are changing rapidly, demanding contemporary gender assessment tools. This study sought to validate the recent US-based Stanford Gender-Related Variables for Health Research (SGVHR) scale in Canada. We also aimed to improve gender prediction by including socio-demographic information on education, income and occupations. We recruited 2445 Canadian online participants (~50% female; mean age: 49.3). Multigroup confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the SGVHR factor structure in our sample, indicating its generalizability beyond the USA. Regression analyses indicated that the SGVHR subscales were moderately predictive of self-reported gender. Incorporating socio-demographic factors Significantly enhanced gender prediction via the SGVHR. This study underscores the SGVHR's applicability in diverse Western populations and encourages the inclusion of easily accessible sociodemographic variables to approximate a gender metric. Future studies should test the health-relevance of such indicators along with the SGVHR.

Exploring the gender difference in type 2 diabetes incidence in a Swiss cohort using latent class analysis: an intersectional approach

IntroductionType 2 diabetes is multifactorial and influenced by the intersection of gender-related variables and other determinants of health. The aim of this study was to highlight the intersectional social position...

Role of sex and gender-related variables in development of metabolic syndrome: A prospective cohort study

IntroductionThe burden of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components has been increasing mainly amongst male individuals. Nevertheless, clinical outcomes related to MetS (i.e., cardiovascular diseases), are worse among female individuals. Whether these sex differences in the components and sequalae of MetS are influenced by gender (i.e., psycho-socio-cultural factors)) is a matter of debate. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the association between gender-related factors and the development of MetS, and to assess if the magnitude of the associations vary by sex. MethodData from the Colaus/PsyColaus study, a prospective population-based cohort of 6,734 middle-aged participants in Lausanne (Switzerland) (2003–2006) were used. The primary endpoint was the development of MetS as defined by the Adult Treatment Panel III of the National Cholesterol Education Program. Multivariable models were estimated using logistic regression to assess the association between gender-related factors and the development of MetS. Two-way interactions between sex, age and gender-related factors were also tested. ResultsAmong 5,195 participants without MetS (mean age=51.3 ± 10.6, 56.1 % females), 27.9 % developed MetS during a mean follow-up of 10.9 years. Female sex (OR:0.48, 95 %CI:0.41–0.55) was associated with decreased risk of developing MetS. Conversely, older age, educational attainment less than university, and low income were associated with an increased risk of developing MetS. Statistically significant interaction between sex and strata of age, education, income, smoking, and employment were identified showing that the reduced risk of MetS in female individuals was attenuated in the lowest education, income, and advanced age strata. However, females who smoke and reported being employed demonstrated a decreased risk of MetS compared to males. Conversely smoking and unemployment were significant risk factors for MetS development among male adults. ConclusionsGender-related factors such as income level and educational attainment play a greater role in the development of MetS in female than individuals. These factors represent novel modifiable targets for implementation of sex- and gender-specific strategies to achieve health equity for all people.

Studying the gender gap in academic research production among Canadian university professors using the multilevel approach to gender inequalities framework

ABSTRACT The gender gap in academic research production has been demonstrated through various methods and geographical contexts. Previous research has yielded conflicting results concerning the effect of gender as a stand-alone variable on research production and primarily focused on other individual and organizational variables to explain this gap. We seek to clarify the influence of gender-related variables on academic research production, operationalized as journal article equivalents published three years prior to the survey. Using a stratified sample of 2,968 full-time Canadian university professors (49% men, 49% women; 30 to 89 years of age, M = 56, SD = 10.17) from the Academic Profession in the Knowledge Society survey, we analyzed the effect of 15 gender-related predictors on research production and measured the variance of research production explained by the combination of these predictors. Through multiple linear regressions, our findings indicate that gender as an isolated variable is a weak yet significant predictor (ß = .04; p < .05) of research production, and that a large proportion of variance (R 2 = .33) is explained by a combination of gender-related variables, such as collaborations, workload division and academic rank. Contrary to what has often been assumed, the gender gap in academic research production is not adequately understood through the effect of gender as a stand-alone variable and gains clarity when we use the ‘multilevel approach to gender inequalities’ conceptual framework, which enlightens the understanding of this phenomenon as a part of the intersection and reinforcement of individual, interactional, organizational, systemic, and cultural institutional factors.

Sex and gender differences in primary care help-seeking for common somatic symptoms: a longitudinal study

Objective Women are reported to consult general practitioners (GPs) more frequently than men. However, previous studies on sex differences in help-seeking behavior for somatic symptoms do not distinguish between sex and gender, do not account for sex differences in presented symptoms, and are frequently conducted in clinical settings, automatically excluding non-help seekers. Therefore, we aim to assess the independent associations of sex and gender with primary care help-seeking for somatic symptoms in the general population. Design and setting Records from the longitudinal population-based Lifelines Cohort Study were linked to routine electronic health records from GPs. Subjects Participants reporting new-onset common somatic symptoms. Main outcome measures Associations between sex and gender, operationalized via a novel gender-index, with primary care help-seeking for somatic symptoms and differences in the strength of the association between gender and help-seeking for somatic symptoms between women and men. Results Of 20,187 individuals with linked data, 8325 participants (67.5% female; mean age = 44.5 years [SD = 12.9]) reported at least one new-onset somatic symptom. Hereof, 255 (3.1%) consulted the GP within 6 weeks of symptom onset. Female sex was positively associated with consulting the GP (OR = 1.78; 95%CI = 1.13–2.80), whereas feminine gender was not (OR = 0.67; 95%CI = 0.39–1.16). The latter association did not differ in strength between men and women. More paid working days are negatively associated with help-seeking (OR = 0.95; 95%CI = 0.91–0.98). Conclusions The results suggest that female sex rather than feminine gender is associated with primary care help-seeking behavior for somatic symptoms. Nevertheless, clinicians should be aware that gender-related variables, such as mean paid working days, may be associated with help-seeking behavior.

Sex and gender in neurodevelopmental conditions.

Health-related conditions often differ qualitatively or quantitatively between individuals of different birth-assigned sexes and gender identities, and/or with different gendered experiences, requiring tailored care. Studying the moderating and mediating effects of sex-related and gender-related factors on impairment, disability, wellbeing and health is of paramount importance especially for neurodivergent individuals, who are diagnosed with neurodevelopmental conditions with uneven sex/gender distributions. Researchers have become aware of the myriad influences that sex-related and gender-related variables have on the manifestations of neurodevelopmental conditions, and contemporary work has begun to investigate the mechanisms through which these effects are mediated. Here we describe topical concepts of sex and gender science, summarize current knowledge, and discuss research and clinical challenges related to autism, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and other neurodevelopmental conditions. We consider sex and gender in the context of epidemiology, behavioural phenotypes, neurobiology, genetics, endocrinology and neighbouring disciplines. The available evidence supports the view that sex and gender are important contributors to the biological and behavioural variability in neurodevelopmental conditions. Methodological caveats such as frequent conflation of sex and gender constructs, inappropriate measurement of these constructs and under-representation of specific demographic groups (for example, female and gender minority individuals and people with intellectual disabilities) limit the translational potential of research so far. Future research and clinical implementation should integrate sex and gender into next-generation diagnostics, mechanistic investigations and support practices.

Spanish adaptation of the Gender-Related Variables for Health Research (GVHR): Factorial Structure and Relationship with Health Variables.

The aim of the present study was to conduct a preliminary study of the Stanford Gender-Related Variables for Health Research (GVHR) adapted to the Spanish population, testing its factor structure, sex factorial invariance and relationship with health variables. Participants were 438 adults between 19-73 years old (M = 31.90, SD = 12.12) who completed the GVHR and measures of health-related quality of life, psychological health, and health-risk behaviors. The confirmatory factorial analysis of the GVHR indicated an acceptable fit to the 7-factor structure as proposed for the North American population. Emotional intelligence and independence factors had low internal consistency, therefore, a five-factor model was tenable in the Spanish population. Sex scalar invariance was tenable, indicating that the factors latent means can be meaningfully compared across sex. Univariate logistic regressions indicated that women reported worse mental and physical health and more health limitations, but this effect dissipated when gender variables were considered. Caregiver and work strain stood out as the variables related to gender that predicted worse health-related quality of life, psychological health, and health-risk behaviors. In conclusion, factorial structure of the GVHR may differ from one culture to another. Additionally, the variables related to gender in the GVHR give a better account of the differences in health compared to biological sex.

Young Women With Acute Myocardial Infarction: Risk Prediction Model for 1-Year Hospital Readmission

BackgroundAlthough young women ( aged ≤ 55 years) are at higher risk than similarly aged men for hospital readmission within 1 year after an acute myocardial infarction (AMI), no risk prediction models have been developed for them. The present study developed and internally validated a risk prediction model of 1-year post-AMI hospital readmission among young women that considered demographic, clinical, and gender-related variables. MethodsWe used data from the US Variation in Recovery: Role of Gender on Outcomes of Young AMI Patients (VIRGO) study (n = 2007 women), a prospective observational study of young patients hospitalized with AMI. Bayesian model averaging was used for model selection and bootstrapping for internal validation. Model calibration and discrimination were respectively assessed with calibration plots and area under the curve. ResultsWithin 1-year post-AMI, 684 women (34.1%) were readmitted to the hospital at least once. The final model predictors included: any in-hospital complication, baseline perceived physical health, obstructive coronary artery disease, diabetes, history of congestive heart failure, low income ( < $30,000 US), depressive symptoms, length of hospital stay, and race (White vs Black). Of the 9 retained predictors, 3 were gender-related. The model was well calibrated and exhibited modest discrimination (area under the curve = 0.66). ConclusionsOur female-specific risk model was developed and internally validated in a cohort of young female patients hospitalized with AMI and can be used to predict risk of readmission. Whereas clinical factors were the strongest predictors, the model included several gender-related variables (ie, perceived physical health, depression, income level). However, discrimination was modest, indicating that other unmeasured factors contribute to variability in hospital readmission risk among younger women.

Sex and gender influence on cardiovascular health in sub-saharan Africa: findings from Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Guinea, and Botswana

Abstract Background Sex and gender-based differences in cardiovascular health (CVH) has been explored in the context of high-income countries. However, these relationships have not been examined in low- and middle-income countries. There is an upsurge of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Irrespective of biological sex, gender-related factors could be the precursor of these conditions. Purpose To examine the associations between biological sex, gender-related variables, and CVH risk factors in SSA countries. Methods We conducted a retrospective analysis of the World Health Organization's “STEPwise approach to surveillance of risk factors for non-communicable disease” or “STEPS” survey, conducted in adults aged 18–69 years from Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Guinea, and Botswana. The surveys were conducted between 2006 and 2014. The main outcome was CVH, as measured by a composite measure of STEPS-HEART health index (smoking, hypertension, diabetes, obesity/overweight, and daily consumption of fruits and vegetables), values ranging from 0 (worst) to 5 (best or ideal). Multivariable logistic regression was applied to determine the gender-related factors related to poorer CVH (index less than 4). Two-way interaction between the sex and gender-related factors were tested by including an interaction term in bivariate models. Results Data included 15,356 adults (61.4% females, mean age 36.9 years). The prevalence of hypertension (21.6% vs. 13.8%) and overweight/obesity (48.3% vs. 27.5%) was higher among females as compared to males. Females were more likely to be unemployed (17.3% vs. 9.7%) or reported unpaid work (36.8% vs. 15.2%). Overall, females showed worse CVH than males (OR female = 0.95, 95% CI: 0.91–0.99). Being married was associated with better CVH compared with being single, more so for males (OR male = 1.09, 95% CI: 0.96–1.24, p interaction &amp;lt;0.01). Males with unpaid work (OR male = 1.28, 95% CI: 1.12–1.47) had better CVH than their unpaid female counterparts (OR female = 1.08, 95% CI: 1.01–1.17). Conclusion This study highlights an alarmingly high prevalence of CVD risk factors, mainly overweight/obesity and hypertension among females in SSA population. Being female was associated with poorer CVH given the disproportionate burden of hypertension and overweight/obesity. Gender-related factors such as marital status and unpaid work were associated with better CVH in males compared to females. With the rising prevalence of CVDs in SSA, it will be important to consider the gender-related factors while implementing preventive programs and creating effective health policies. Funding Acknowledgement Type of funding sources: Foundation. Main funding source(s): The GENDER– NET Plus ERA-NET Initiative (project ref. number: GNP-78): The Canadian Institutes of Health Research (GNP-161904)

Sex and Gender Influence on Cardiovascular Health in Sub-Saharan Africa: Findings from Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Guinea, and Botswana.

Background:There is an upsurge of cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Irrespective of biological sex, gender-related factors could be the precursor of these conditions.Objective:To examine the associations between biological sex, gender-related variables, and cardiovascular health (CVH) risk factors in SSA countries.Methods:We used data from the STEPwise approach to surveillance of risk factors for non-communicable disease survey, conducted in adults from Ghana, Gambia, Mali, Guinea, and Botswana. The main outcome was CVH, measured through the health index with values ranging from 0 (worst) to 5 (best or ideal) CVH. Multivariable logistic regression was applied to determine the gender-related factors related to poorer CVH (index less than 4).Results:Data included 15,356 adults (61.4% females, mean age 36.9 years). The prevalence of hypertension (21.6% vs. 13.8%) and overweight/obesity (48.3% vs. 27.5%) was higher among females as compared to males. Females were more likely to be unemployed (17.3% vs. 9.7%) or reported unpaid work (36.8% vs. 15.2%). Overall, females showed worse CVH than males (ORfemale = 0.95, 95% CI:0.91–0.99). Being married was associated with better CVH compared with being single, more so for males (ORmale = 1.09, 95% CI:0.96–1.24, pinteraction < 0.01). Males with unpaid work (ORmale = 1.28, 95% CI:1.12–1.47) had better CVH than their unpaid female counterparts (ORfemale = 1.08, 95% CI:1.01–1.17).Conclusion:In SSA populations, being female was associated with poorer CVH given the disproportionate burden of hypertension and overweight/obesity. Gender-related factors such as marital status and unpaid work were associated with better CVH in males compared to females.

Development of a gender score in a representative German population sample and its association with diverse social positions.

Gender as a relational concept is rarely considered in epidemiology. However, an in-depth reflection on gender conceptualisation and operationalisation can advance gender analysis in quantitative health research, allowing for more valid evidence to support public health interventions. We constructed a context-specific gender score to assess how its discriminatory power differed in sub-groups defined by social positions relevant to intersectional analyses, i.e., sex/gender, race, class, age and sexual attraction. We created a gender score with the help of multivariable logistic regression models and conditional probabilities based on gendered social practices and expressed on a masculinity-femininity continuum, using data of the German Socioeconomic Panel. With density plots, we exploratively compared distributions of gendered social practices and their variation across social groups. We included 13 gender-related variables to define a gender score in our sample (n = 20,767). Variables on family and household structures presented with the highest weight for the gender score. When comparing social groups, we saw that young individuals, those without children, not living with a partner or currently living in a same-sex/gender partnership, showed more overlap between feminine/masculine social practices among females and males. The distribution of gendered social practices differs among social groups, which empirically backs up the theoretical notion of gender being a context-specific construct. Economic participation and household structures remain essential drivers of heterogeneity in practices among women and men in most social positions. The gender score can be used in epidemiology to support concerted efforts to overcome these gender (in)equalities-which are important determinants of health inequalities.

The SIMI Gender ‘5 Ws’ Rule for the integration of sex and gender-related variables in clinical studies towards internal medicine equitable research

Biological sex and sociocultural gender matter when it comes to health and diseases. They have been both proposed as the undeniable gateways towards a personalized approach in care delivery. The Gender Working Group of the Italian Society of Internal Medicine (SIMI) was funded in 2019 with the aim of promoting good practice in the integration of sex and gender domains in clinical studies. Starting from a narrative literature review and based on regular meetings which led to a shared virtual discussion during the national SIMI congress in 2021, the members of the WG provided a core operational framework to be applied by internal medicine (IM) specialists to understand and implement their daily activity as researchers and clinicians. The SIMI Gender ‘5 Ws’ Rule for clinical studies has been conceptualized as follows: Who (Clinical Internal Medicine Scientists and Practitioners), What (Gender-related Variables—Gender Core Dataset), Where (Clinical Studies/Translational Research), When (Every Time It Makes Sense) and Why (Explanatory Power of Gender and Opportunities). In particular, the gender core dataset was identified by the following domains (variables to collect accordingly): relations (marital status, social support, discrimination); roles (occupation, caregiver status, household responsibility, primary earner, household dimension); institutionalized gender (education level, personal income, living in rural vs urban areas); and gender identity (validated questionnaires on personality traits). The SIMI Gender ‘5 Ws’ Rule is a simple and easy conceptual framework that will guide IM for the design and analysis of clinical studies.

Demystifying How to Incorporate Sex and Gender Into Cardiovascular Research: A Practical Guide

Understanding the role of biological sex and sociocultural gender in cardiovascular medicine is one of the first steps toward personalized medicine. Sex- and gender-based analysis (SGBA) seeks to systematically incorporate sex and gender-related variables as well as the intersectionality with other factors in medical research, with the goal of providing evidence for equitable cardiovascular clinical practice. This article outlines simple steps that summarize an approach to SGBA that may ultimately be a game changer in cardiovascular research and practice.

Gender Board Composition and Performance in Italian Start-ups

Literature on start-ups has mainly involved functional and education diversity of top teams; gender has been neglected, most likely because of the low presence of women in technological firms. Also, extant research has overlooked the role of female representation in start-ups’ boards, despite boards represent a key piece in the puzzle that enables the functioning and survival of new firms. Building on this gap, we aim to investigate the following research question: are gender-related variables in the board of innovative start-ups correlated with better performance? We employ a novel dataset of 3,257 Italian innovative start-ups founded between 2012 and 2018, and we run eight OLS regressions to estimate performance as a function of measures of female representation. Our results provide evidence of a positive relation of gender-related variables with performance. Specifically, we find that gender diversity is related to an efficient use of assets (ROA), while the shares and the number of females are related to an efficient use of capital (ROE). We also detect a non-linear exponential relation between the number of females in the board and ROE: as more women serve in the board, returns on equity grow more than proportionally. Our paper contributes to the literature on board composition and start-up performance by providing new evidence on the role of female representation.

Differentiating Sex and Gender Among Older Men and Women.

This study aimed to paradigmatically show the development of a gender score that can be used as either an adjustment or a matching variable to separate the effects of gender versus biological sex in a sample of older adults. Our sample comprised 1100 participants from the Berlin Aging Study II (52% women, mean [standard deviation] age = 75.6 [3.8] years). The gender score included a multitude of gender-related variables and was constructed via logistic regression. In models of health outcomes, it was used as an adjustment variable in regression analyses as well as a matching variable to match older men and women according to their gender. Matching by gender substantially reduced sample size to n = 340. Analyses (either adjusting for gender or matching men and women according to gender) revealed that female sex was independently associated with lower grip strength (B = -14.47, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -15.51 to -13.44), better cognitive performance (B = 3.47, 95% CI = 1.94 to 5.0), higher pulse wave velocity (B = 0.19, 95% CI = 0.06 to 0.31), lower body mass index (B = -0.97, 95% CI = -1.74 to -0.21), and lower rates of metabolic syndrome (odds ratio = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.37 to 0.77). In addition, both sex and gender were independently associated with cognitive performance and depression. Calculating a gender score allows for the inclusion of a large number of variables, creating parsimonious models that are adaptable to different data sets and alternative gender definitions. Depending on the research question and the sample properties, the gender score can be used as either an adjustment or a matching variable.Trial Registration: DRKS-Deutsches Register Klinischer Studien (Study ID: DRKS00016157).

Aspirations to top management over five decades: a shifting role of gender?

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to examine linkages of gender and gender-related variables to aspirations to top management over a period spanning five decades.Design/methodology/approachDuring each of the past five decades, samples from two early-career populations (n = 2131), undergraduate business students and part-time (evening) MBAs, completed an aspirations to top management measure and described themselves on an instrument that assessed self-ascribed masculinity and femininity.FindingsAspirations to top management were predicted by respondent gender for undergraduates, with women’s aspirations lower than those of men, and by masculinity for both populations. Suggesting a shifting role of gender, undergraduate women’s aspirations to top management declined during the 21st century, whereas undergraduate men’s aspirations did not.Practical implicationsAny decline in early-career women’s aspirations to top management over a sustained period may contribute in the long run to perpetuating the under-representation of women in top management.Originality/valueThe finding of a striking decline in women’s aspirations to top management during the 21st century in an early-career population is an original contribution to the gender in management literature.

Sex and gender differences in movement disorders: Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, dystonia and chorea.

Sex and gender-based differences in epidemiology, clinical features and therapeutical responses are emerging in several movement disorders, even though they are still not widely recognized. In this chapter, we summarize the most relevant evidence concerning these differences in Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, dystonia and chorea. Indeed, both sex-related biological (hormonal levels fluctuations) and gender-related variables (socio-cultural and environmental factors) may differently impact symptoms manifestation and severity, phenotype and disease progression of movement disorders on men and women. Moreover, sex differences in treatment responses should be taken into account in any therapeutical planning. Physicians need to be aware of these major differences between men and women that will eventually have a major impact on better tailoring prevention, treatment, or even delaying progression of the most common movement disorders.