Perpetrator Gender Research Articles

Effects of Gender and Confrontation on Attributions of Female-Perpetrated Intimate Partner Violence

The present study examined the effects of perpetrator gender, victim confrontation, observer gender, and observer exposure to violence on attributions of blame and responsibility for partner violence. Data were collected from 728 college-aged students enrolled at two southeastern universities in the United States. Results demonstrated gendered biases among both male and female respondents. Men and women attributed less responsibility and blame to female perpetrators than male perpetrators, especially if the perpetrator was provoked. Moreover, exposure to violence was important for predicting attributions, and some of the evidence for observer effects were reduced to non-significance once these variables were added to the model.

Abusive Head Trauma in Children: A Comparison of Male and Female Perpetrators

To evaluate the effect of perpetrator gender on victim presentation and outcomes, and perpetrator legal outcomes for abusive head trauma (AHT). We performed a retrospective chart review of AHT cases from 1998 to 2008. Patient clinical data and information regarding perpetrator legal outcome was obtained. Relationship of brain injury and retinal hemorrhages (RHs) and differences in categorical variables of perpetrator gender were compared by using Fisher's exact test. Differences in continuous variables between perpetrator gender were compared by using the Mann-Whitney Test. There were 34 cases of AHT with identified perpetrators, 17 of each gender. Mean age of the victims was 9.4 months (SD: 7.8). Thirty-two (94%) had intracranial hemorrhages, 14 (41%) had both primary and secondary brain injury, 28 (82%) had RHs, and 6 (18%) died. The severity of RH was related to the severity of brain injuries (P = .01). The median age for female perpetrators (34 years) was higher than that for males (27 years; P = .001). Six categorical variables were associated with male perpetrator gender: acute presenting symptoms of cardiopulmonary or respiratory arrest (P = .025), worse clinical outcome (P = .012), neurosurgical intervention (P = .037), death (P = .018), perpetrator confession (P = .0001), and conviction (P = .005). There were significant perpetrator gender differences of AHT in children. Male perpetrators were younger and more likely to confess and be convicted. Victims of male perpetrators had more serious acute presentations and neurosurgical intervention and suffered worse clinical outcomes.

Predicting Rape Empathy Based on Victim, Perpetrator, and Participant Gender, and History of Sexual Aggression

This study examined empathy for a hypothetical rape victim and perpetrator based on gender of victim, perpetrator and participant, and sexual aggression experience. Undergraduates (n = 591, 333 female) from a United States east coast mid-size public university completed the Rape Victim and Perpetrator Empathy Scales (victim and perpetrator gender experimentally varied), and the Sexual Experiences Survey. Hypotheses were partially supported. Empathy was greater with the victim of a man than a woman. Women with victimization experience were especially empathic with a female victim. Men without victimization experience were relatively non-empathic with a male victim. Empathy was greater with a female than a male perpetrator, especially when her victim was male or when reported by women. A male rapist received the greatest empathy from men with perpetration experience. Findings are consistent with cultural expectations that women are victims and men are aggressors, and may imply that similarity in experience can facilitate rape empathy.

Intimate Partner Violence: The Effect of Gender and Contextual Factors on Community Perceptions of Harm, and Suggested Victim and Criminal Justice Responses

Using a vignette to depict physical violence by an intimate partner, a 2 (perpetrator gender) X 2 (participant gender) X 2 (frequency) X 2 (intent to cause harm) between subjects factorial design was used to examine under what circumstances individuals perceive: an incident should be illegal, the extent of harm, and appropriate victim and criminal justice responses. There were 868 participants from the Brisbane (Australia) community (48.5% males). The actions of male perpetrators were viewed more seriously and the victims were recommended to seek more forms of assistance when the perpetrator was male. There were few differences in perceptions of violence according to participant gender. The frequency of the violence affected the participant's responses but the intentions of the perpetrator did not. Results are discussed in terms of stereotypes of intimate partner violence (IPV) and the implications for help-seeking behavior by victims.

Attitudes and Attributions Associated With Female and Male Partner Violence1

In an interview study, we examined attitudes toward intimate partner violence (IPV). We examined whether attitudes toward IPV varied as a function of sample (student, general, and incarcerated), participant gender, and abuse history, or as a function of perpetrator gender. Additionally, participants' conflict‐resolution strategies were examined. Findings revealed that perpetrator gender and participant abuse history were the most influential factors in shaping attitudes. Males and females evaluated violence similarly. Overall, there was greater acceptance for abuse perpetrated by females than by males, and participants who had either perpetrated or received abuse were the most condoning of IPV. A lack of conflict skills was associated with IPV. For males, this lack of skills generalized to situations outside of the relationship.

At-Risk and Maltreated Children Exposed to Intimate Partner Aggression/Violence

Despite increasing research on children's exposure to intimate partner aggression/violence (IPAV), and co-occurrence of IPAV and maltreatment, little is known about IPAV in at-risk and maltreating families. We explored the nature of IPAV in 554 homes where children were identified as at risk or reported for maltreatment and examined differences between emotional and behavioral outcomes for children in homes where one or both intimate partners is the alleged perpetrator of IPAV. We found in this sample that IPAV primarily took the form of verbal aggression with differences in perpetrator gender for verbal, minor, and severe violence. There were few child outcomes predicted by perpetrator gender: Significant child behavior problems were found with all types of IPAV and both genders as perpetrators. Results suggest the need for comprehensive assessments of IPAV when assessing risk, safety, and harm issues for children reported as being at risk or victims of maltreatment.

African-American Undergraduates' Perceptions and Attributions of Child Sexual Abuse

This study examined perceptions of child sexual abuse and attributions of responsibility in a cross-sectional convenience sample of 384 African-American undergraduates using a scenario manipulating the age of the victim, gender of the victim, and gender of the perpetrator. Multiple interactions of respondent, victim, and perpetrator gender on perception of intrafamilial child sexual abuse and attributions of responsibility for victim, perpetrator, and parents were obtained. These results extended previous research conducted on primarily Caucasian samples and highlighted the moderating role of gender of the respondent for this ethnicity.

Double Standards in Sentence Structure

Previous research has shown that passive voice predominates in mass media reports describing male violence against women. However, there has been little systematic study of narratives describing female violence against men. The authors analyzed the impact of perpetrator gender on verb voice, first in a content analysis of published news stories and second in a new procedure for eliciting written narratives with male or female perpetrators. Results reveal an increased frequency of passive voice when perpetrators are male. These findings suggest that writers specifically prefer the passive voice to describe male-on-female violence rather than for violent or negative acts in general.

Do You See What I See? The Influence of Gender Stereotypes on Student and Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) Perceptions of Violent Same-Sex and Opposite-Sex Relationships

ABSTRACT Forty-one men and 67 women undergraduate students, as well as 35 men and 27 women Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) officers, rated the abusiveness of intimate partner violence (IPV) vignettes portraying each possible gender combination of victim and perpetrator (Harris & Cook, 1994). Rating differences according to victim and perpetrator gender, occupation (student or RCMP officer), and participant gender were anticipated. Analyses found that student and RCMP ratings of abuse severity were both highest for the male-female scenario. However, the RCMP considered the female-male, male-male, and female-female scenarios to be more abusive than did the students. Our findings suggest that, while the RCMP appeared to be more sensitive to male and same-sex victims than students, both groups remain somewhat biased.

Gender role conformity and aggression: Influence of perpetrator and victim conformity on direct physical aggression in women

The wealth of literature indicating that men are more physically aggressive than women may be the reason for the dearth of research on physical aggression in women. However, recent research has found that this discrepancy is better attributed to conformity to gender roles rather than to biological sex. The purpose of the present study was to assess the influence of masculine and feminine gender role conformity on direct physical aggression in women. One-hundred eighty four women were recruited to compete in a sham aggression paradigm against either a hyperfeminine (gender role conforming) or hypofeminine (gender role violating) confederate woman. Results indicated that women evinced more physical aggression toward a hypofeminine woman than toward her hyperfeminine counterpart. Moreover, endorsement of masculine traits by female aggressors was positively correlated with behavioral and self-reports of physical aggression. Femininity was unrelated to behavioral indices of physical aggression but negatively correlated with self-reports of aggression. Findings are discussed in reference to the increased risk of victimization of women who deviate from gender-specific role norms and the impact of perpetrator gender role adherence on aggressive behavior. Future examination of differential effects of general nonconformity on aggression as an alternative explanation of the findings is required.

An empirical study of characteristics and types of homicide–suicides in Hong Kong, 1989–2005

BackgroundClinical classification of types of homicide–suicide (HS) was proposed, but no information on empirical-based classification and prevalence of different types of HS was available. This paper aimed to empirically classify HS events into different clusters and to discuss specific evidence-based prevention initiatives. MethodData of HS offenders from Coroner's Court were analyzed through a two-step cluster analysis. Number of clusters and appropriate allocations of cases were obtained. External background variables were tested through post hoc tests to explore the differences among clusters. ResultsTwo hundred and thirty-one people died in 98 episodes in the study period (1989–2005). The majority of HS offenders were male (n=68, 68.7%) and aged 30–49 (n=62, 62.6%). Domestic killing was the major type of HS in which over 60% of the homicide motivation was related to spousal conflicts or altruistic reasons. Spouses (n=46, 46.5%) and children (n=47, 47.5%) were predominantly the victims. The common killing methods included chopping with weapons (n=33, 33.3%) and charcoal burning (n=22, 22.2%). Six clusters of HS were derived from the cluster analysis and were further reduced to four major classes. Four major classes were dispute, conflicts in a relationship, altruistic, and mental illness. These classes could be differentiated by methods of homicide and suicide, gender of perpetrator, relationship with victim, and indebtedness. ConclusionsFinancial problem, dispute and domestic violence are significant precipitants of HS in Hong Kong. Those people associated with the precipitating factors should be the targets for intervention and prevention.

Perceptions of Victims and Perpetrators in a Depicted Child Sexual Abuse Case

This study investigated the roles of respondent, perpetrator, and victim gender on attributions toward a 10- or 15-year-old victim and an adult perpetrator in a hypothetical sexual abuse case. It was predicted (a) that female respondents would be more provictim and antiperpetrator than men, (b) that 10-year-old victims would be deemed more credible than 15-year-olds, and (c) that men would deem a 15-year-old male victim more culpable when child sexual abuse is perpetrated by a female abuser. Three hundred thirty-seven respondents read a 350-word sexual abuse depiction in which victim age, victim gender, and perpetrator gender were varied between respondents. Respondents then completed a 14-item attribution scale, relating to victim blame, perpetrator blame, assault severity, and victim credibility. A series of ANOVAs revealed support for all predictions. Results are discussed in relation to gender role attitudes. Suggestions for future work also considered.

Child abuse in the eyes of the beholder: Lay perceptions of child sexual and physical abuse

Objective The purpose was to explore the effects of victim and perpetrator gender, type of abuse, and victim-perpetrator relationship on university students’ and non-students’ perceptions of different kinds of child abuse. Method One hundred and ninety-nine participants (including university students and non-student adults) evaluated each of 24 vignettes (within-subjects design) describing an abusive interaction between a child and an adult. The following four variables were manipulated: the victim's gender, the perpetrator's gender, the type of abuse (physical, relatively mild sexual, or relatively severe sexual), and the perpetrator's relationship to the victim (parent or babysitter). Participants rated each vignette on a number of dimensions: degree of trauma and severity, likelihood of general occurrence and reoccurrence, victim believability, and “repressibility” of the event. Results Significant interactions emerged on each dimension. For example, sexual abuse (whether mild or severe) was rated as being more traumatic and severe if perpetrated by a parent, but relationship type did not affect perceptions of physical abuse. In addition, significant perpetrator gender by victim gender interactions indicated that homosexual abuse was perceived as more traumatic and repressible than heterosexual abuse, but as less likely to occur; and male participants tended to be more affected by the gender of the perpetrator and abuse type than female participants. Conclusion The results suggest that people have stereotypes about the circumstances and consequences of child abuse. These stereotypes are often, though not always, consistent with existing empirical findings.

Perceptions of Relational and Physical Aggression among College Students: Effects of Gender of Perpetrator, Target, and Perceiver

This study examined gendered perceptions of relational and physical aggressive behaviors and personal experiences with both types of aggression. Prior research suggested that physical aggression by males and relational aggression by females would be perceived most negatively. College students (186 female, 128 male) rated the acceptability and harmfulness of aggression in scenarios in which type of aggression and perpetrator and target gender were varied. As predicted, relational aggression by female characters and physical aggression by male characters were rated as less acceptable and more aggressive/harmful than the same behavior by the other gender. Thus, expectations regarding the gender-appropriateness of aggression appear to affect perceptions of such acts. Despite popular conceptions that females use and are harmed by relational aggression more than males, there was no gender difference in experience with relational aggression, nor were female targets viewed as more harmed by such aggression than their male counterparts.

Gender and Multiple Forms of Peer Victimization: How Do They Influence Adolescent Psychosocial Adjustment?

This study explores the relationship among multiple forms of peer victimization (e.g., direct physical/verbal, relational, and sexual harassment) and psychosocial adjustment among urban students and uses cluster analysis to identify subgroups of victims. Students in sixth, seventh, and eighth grade completed self-report surveys about their psychosocial adjustment, peer victimization experiences, and the gender of the other person involved. Results reveal that both physical/verbal victimization and sexual harassment were related to internalizing behavior, and sexual harassment was related to externalizing behavior. Cluster analysis revealed preliminary subgroups of victims. In addition, being victimized by a boy was more strongly related to behavior problems for both boys and girls than the experience of being victimized by a girl. Results suggest that the gender of perpetrators and victims should be considered, and there is a need to include sexual harassment in the study of peer victimization when developmentally appropriate.

The Case of the Guilty Victim: The Effects of Gender of Victim and Gender of Perpetrator on Attributions of Blame and Responsibility

This study was designed to investigate the effects of gender on attributions of blame, responsibility, and recommended sentencing in a sexualized crime scenario with a 2 (perpetrator gender) by 2 (victim gender) by 2 (participant gender) between-subjects design. There was an interaction of gender of perpetrator and gender of victim such that female victims were held less responsible and their perpetrators were judged more harshly, especially when the perpetrator was male. Male victims were held the most responsible, especially when the perpetrator was male. Individual difference analyses indicated that attitude toward sexual minorities was the best predictor of judgments. Belief in a just world was not predictive of dependent measures. Attributions of blame and perceived defense adequacy were predictors of assigned penalty.

Over-Representation of People of Color as Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrators

ABSTRACT This article presents gender, age, and race comparisons of perpetrators of adult intimate partner violence (IPV) obtained from: (a) a mid-size metropolitan police department, (b) a victim advocacy agency located in the same city, and (c) a batterer intervention program also in the same city. Results showed found that: (a) the overwhelming majority of IPV perpetrators were male, (b) perpetrators were likely to be between the ages of 20–39, (c) racial demographics varied with the type of IPV intervention agency, and (d) People of Color were over-represented in police calls. This effort confirms the importance of obtaining information from varied community sources in order to provide a more complete picture of local IPV perpetrator demographics, especially racial characteristics.

Analysis of caretaker histories in abuse: Comparing initial histories with subsequent confessions

Objective We hypothesize that perpetrators of abuse include elements of truth in their initial history and that an analysis of perpetrator confessions can teach professionals how to identify these initial truths. Methods The information from a consecutive sample of perpetrators’ confessions concerning 41 children hospitalized because of injuries caused by child abuse was reviewed. The details about the injuries contained in the confessions were compared with the details provided when these children initially presented for medical care. Information about the perpetrator's gender and relationship to the child, the victim's age and gender, type of injury, family risk factors, the trigger of the abusive event, the circumstances surrounding the event, and the type of trauma were collected. Results A total of 45 perpetrators abused 41 children; 76% of perpetrators were male; 56% were the child's father; 34% were the child's mother. The perpetrators initially provided no explanation about how 68% of the children received an injury. In 91% of their initial histories, the perpetrators provided some element of truth about the circumstances or triggering event for the abuse. In 67% of confessions, crying was the circumstance that triggered the abuse. Mothers were more likely to describe the situation that triggered the abuse (85% of mothers versus 58% of fathers, p = ns), while fathers were more likely to describe accurately the circumstances surrounding the abuse (79% of fathers versus 62% of mothers, p = ns). Conclusions Perpetrators of abuse provide initial truths in their presenting history. Child abuse professionals must take a careful history from all caretakers and “listen” for the “elements of truth.” These truths are the child's behavior or circumstance that increased stress and triggered the abuse. Employing this method in a careful analysis of confessions can make a significant contribution to the capacity to identify child abuse. In addition, more information about the role of triggers may help to focus child abuse prevention strategies.

Urgent medical assessment after child sexual abuse

Background Immediate medical assessment has been recommended for children after sexual abuse to identify physical injuries, secure forensic evidence, and provide for the safety of the child. However, it is unclear whether young children seen urgently within 72 hours of reported sexual contact would have higher frequencies of interview or examination findings as compared to those seen non-urgently or whether forensic findings would be affected by child characteristics, type of reported contact, or later events. Design/setting We evaluated 190 consecutive cases of children under 13 years of age urgently referred during a 5-year period in 1998–2003 to a community child advocacy center and compared them to those non-urgently referred with regard to their physical examination findings, any sexually transmitted infections or forensic evidence, gender, pubertal development, type of contact, reported ejaculation, later bathing or changing clothes, time to examination, and gender, age and relationship of alleged perpetrator. Results Children seen urgently were younger and had less frequent CPS involvement, more disclosures, and more positive physical examinations, and had more contact with older perpetrators than those seen non-urgently. Overall, most children were female and had normal or non-specific physical examinations. Certain case characteristics were predictive of evidence isolation in the 9% who had positive forensic evidence identified. Semen or sperm was identified from body swabs only from non-bathed, female children older than 10 years of age or on clothing or objects. Conclusions Female children over 10 years old who report ejaculation or genital contact without bathing have the highest likelihood of positive examinations or forensic evidence. While there are other potential benefits of early examination, physicians seeking to identify forensic evidence should consider the needs of the child and other factors when determining the timing of medical assessment after sexual abuse.

Examining a conceptual framework of intimate partner violence in men and women arrested for domestic violence.

There is a paucity of research developing and testing conceptual models of intimate partner violence, particularly for female perpetrators of aggression. Several theorists' conceptual frameworks hypothesize that distal factors-such as personality traits, drinking patterns, and marital discord-influence each other and work together to increase the likelihood of physical aggression. The purpose of the present study was to investigate these variables in a relatively large sample of men and women arrested for domestic violence and court-referred to violence intervention programs. We recruited 409 participants (272 men and 137 women) who were arrested for domestic violence. We assessed perpetrator alcohol problems, antisociality, trait anger, relationship discord, psychological aggression, and physical abuse. We also assessed the alcohol problems, psychological aggression, and physical abuse of their relationship partners. We used structural equation modeling to examine the interrelationships among these variables in both genders independently. In men and women, alcohol problems in perpetrators and their partners contributed directly to physical abuse and indirectly via psychological aggression, even after perpetrator antisociality, perpetrator trait anger, perpetrator relationship discord, and perpetrator and partner psychological and physical aggression were included in the model. The only significant gender difference found was that, in male perpetrators, trait anger was significantly associated with relationship discord, but this path was not significant for women perpetrators. The results of the study provide further evidence that alcohol problems in both partners are important in the evolution of psychological aggression and physical violence. There were minimal differences between men and women in the relationships of most distal risk factors with physical aggression, suggesting that the conceptual framework examined may fit equally well regardless of perpetrator gender. This finding suggests that, in arrested men and women, violence intervention programs might have improved outcomes if they offered adjunct or integrated alcohol treatment.