Gender Minority Stress Research Articles

Gender Identity Milestones, Minority Stress and Mental Health in Three Generational Cohorts of Italian Binary and Nonbinary Transgender People.

Transgender and gender nonconforming (TGNC) people experience high rates of minority stress and associated risk for negative health outcomes. However, during the last years, significant positive socio-cultural changes have happened, and younger cohorts of TGNC individuals are having diverse experiences compared to older cohorts. By integrating the minority stress theory and the life course perspective, this cross-sectional, web-based study aimed to explore in 197 Italian TGNC people aged 18 to 54 years (M = 29.82, SD = 9.64) whether the average ages of gender identity milestones (i.e., first insights about being TGNC, self-labeling as a TGNC person, and coming out), minority stress, and mental health vary among three generational cohorts (i.e., Generation Z, Millennials, and Generation X). Compared with older cohorts, younger participants: (a) were more likely to be in the trans-masculine spectrum; (b) self-labeled as TGNC and came out earlier; (c) had more negative expectations and lower levels of disclosure; and (d) had higher levels of mental health problems. No generational differences related to first insights about being TGNC and distal minority stressors were found. Furthermore, compared with binary individuals, participants with a non-binary identity: (a) reported later ages for the gender identity milestones; (b) had higher negative expectations; and (c) had higher levels of mental health problems. Overall, our findings indicated that changes in the social environments have a limited impact on stigmatization processes and mental health of Italian TGNC people.

Transgender and Gender Diverse Youth’s Experiences of Gender-Related Adversity

Transgender and gender diverse youth (TGD youth; i.e., children and adolescents who do not identify with their birth-assigned sex) face a variety of traumas and adversities, including those explicit to their gender identity and/or expression (hereafter “gender”; e.g., gender-related victimization, caregiver rejection). However, few studies or clinical assessment measures capture the full spectrum of adversities TGD youth experience. A comprehensive examination of gender- and non-gender-related adversities faced by TGD youth is critical to understand their high risk for mental health problems and to inform best practices for clinical assessment and care. The present study sought to qualitatively examine gender- and non-gender-related adversities using clinical interview data from a sample of TGD youth (N = 49; ages 11–20; 76% White) seeking services at a pediatric gender center. Interview data were analyzed using deductive content analysis. To support future measure development, existing measures of adversity and gender minority stress informed the analysis. Results highlighted the saliency of gender-related adversities among TGD youth, the themes of which included verbal abuse, threats or acts of physical and sexual assault, discrimination, nonaffirmation, and rejection. Implications for clinical assessment with TGD youth and future avenues in measure development are discussed.

Potentially Traumatic Events and the Association Between Gender Minority Stress and Suicide Risk in a Gender-Diverse Sample.

Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) individuals are at an elevated risk of trauma exposure and other negative mental and physical health outcomes. The present study examined the interaction between minority stressors, reported potentially traumatic events (PTEs), and suicide risk (i.e., ideation and behavior) in a TGD sample. A convenience sample of 155 self-identified TGD individuals completed questionnaires assessing distal (e.g., gender-related discrimination) and proximal (e.g., internalized transphobia) gender identity-related stressors, lifetime PTE history, and suicide risk. The results of a mediation analysis demonstrated that proximal stressors partially mediated the association between distal stressors and suicide risk, B = 1.12, t(152) = 3.72, p < .01, 95% CI [0.53, 1.72], and the results of a moderated mediation analysis showed that the interaction term was not significant, and that the number of PTEs did not moderate the mediation model that examined proximal stressors as a mediator of the association between distal stressors and suicide risk, F(3, 151) = 18.74, MSE = 0.75, R2 = 0.27, B = 0.07, t(151) = 0.89, p = .371, 95% CI [-0.08, 0.21]. These findings suggest that minority stressors may contribute to suicide risk in a TGD population above and beyond the impact of trauma exposure. Risk reduction efforts for suicide risk may be enhanced by attending to minority stressors in addition to PTEs.

Cardiovascular Disease in a Population-Based Sample of Transgender and Cisgender Adults

Existing data on cardiovascular disease among transgender people are inconsistent and are derived from nonrepresentative samples or population-based data sets that do not include transgender-specific risk factors such as gender-affirming hormone use and gender minority stressors. A nationally representative sample of cisgender and transgender adults aged ≥40 years was used to assess the prevalence and correlates of smoking, select cardiovascular disease conditions, and venous thromboembolism. Participants were recruited from 2016 to 2018, with analysis conducted in December 2020 with 114 transgender and 964 cisgender individuals. Sample weights and multiple imputations were used for all estimates except for descriptive statistics. Logistic regression models estimated the ORs and 95% CIs expressing the relationship between each outcome variable and a set of independent variables. Each model controlled for race and age. No meaningful differences between cisgender and transgender participants were found in smoking or cardiovascular disease conditions. However, there was an increased odds of venous thromboembolism among transgender women compared with those among cisgender women. Transgender people had greater odds of discrimination, psychological distress, and adverse childhood experiences. These stressors were associated with increased odds of a cardiovascular condition, and everyday discrimination and adverse childhood experiences were associated with increased odds of smoking. Discrimination and psychological distress were associated with venous thromboembolism. Transgender people face disparities in cardiovascular disease risk. This study provides support for the gender minority stress model as a framework for understanding cardiovascular disease disparities. Future research with larger samples and adjudicated outcomes is needed to advance the field.

Rumination & eating psychopathology among trans and nonbinary individuals: A path analysis integrating minority stress

Ruminative thought patterns, defined as repetitive negative self-focused attention, are considered an avoidant coping strategy for managing stress. As trans and nonbinary (TNB) individuals commonly experience prejudice and discrimination in response to their gender identities (i.e. minority stressors), rumination over these stressors may contribute to heightened risk of psychopathology in these groups. Although rumination is a general risk factor for eating disorder (ED) psychopathology, no studies to date have examined whether eating- or gender-related ruminative patterns relate to maintenance of ED psychopathology for TNB individuals. This cross-sectional study investigated whether levels of rumination (both gender-related and ED-specific) mediated the relationship between minority stress and ED psychopathology. MethodParticipants were 242 TNB adults (Mage = 24.92, SD = 6.5, Range = 18-70) recruited online, who completed measures of minority stress, gender-related rumination, ED-specific rumination, and ED psychopathology. We used Preacher-Hayes' approach to examine the parallel mediation model, with gender-related and ED-specific rumination as potential mediators. ResultsGender-related rumination did not mediate the relation between gender minority stress and ED psychopathology, Indirect B = -0.00 [95% BCa CI: -0.01, 0.00]; however, ED-specific rumination was significant, indicating partial mediation, Indirect B = 0.01 [95% BCa CI: 0.00, 0.02]. ConclusionAs gender minority stress and ED-specific rumination relate to ED psychopathology, it is essential that clinicians adopt an intersectional minority stress framework in understanding ED psychopathology among TNB individuals.

Gender minority stress in trans and gender diverse adolescents and young people.

Gender minority stress refers to social stressors such as discrimination and stigma that gender minorities are subject to. This study examines the relationship between gender minority stress and psychological well-being in trans and gender diverse young people (TGDYP). We used a cross-sectional design to investigate the relationship between gender minority stress and mental well-being in TGDYP aged 16-25. We measured anxiety, depression, general psychological well-being, gender dysphoria, gender minority stress (distal and proximal), resilience and heteronormative beliefs in cisgender (n = 135) and trans and gender diverse (TGD) (n = 106) participants. Hierarchical regression was used to analyse the data. TGD participants had significantly higher levels of anxiety and depression, and poorer general well-being, than cisgender participants. Although the direction of the relationship cannot be determined through our analysis, TGD participants who experienced more minority stress and were assigned female at birth had higher levels of depression and anxiety. TGD participants with higher resilience scores and were assigned male at birth had better well-being overall. Our findings suggest that we should pay attention to minority stress when thinking about how to reduce anxiety and depression in TGDYP. The responsibility for improving well-being lies not just with services but instead should be held by our whole society.

“We are our own community”: Immigrant Latinx transgender people community experiences.

Little is known about how immigrant Latinx transgender people experience support from their communities in the U.S. and back in their country of origin. The present study aimed to understand how immigrant Latinx transgender people reported support within their communities. A community sample of 18 immigrant Latinx transgender people in a large metropolitan city in Florida participated in semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis revealed four themes depicting the varying levels of support that participants received within their communities in the U.S., including: (a) neighborhood belonging, (b) organizations as a source of well-being, (c) friends as a source of protection and safety, and (d) supporting undocumented individuals. In addition, three themes emerged about participants' experiences of discrimination and oppression within their communities, including: (a) discrimination and violence, (b) police profiling and restriction of public space, and (c) lack of safety for undocumented individuals. Participants also shared narratives about the perceived level of community support they received in the U.S. versus in their countries of origin. Drawing on gender minority stress and intersectionality, the community experiences of immigrant Latinx transgender people are examined and interpreted to provide important research, advocacy, and practice implications. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Longitudinal effects of gender minority stressors on substance use and related risk and protective factors among gender minority adolescents.

PurposeGender minority (GM) adolescents, who have a different gender identity than their sex assigned at birth, may use substances as a coping strategy in response to GM-related stressors. This study examined longitudinal effects of gender minority stressors on substance use in GM adolescents, and related risk factors (internalized transphobia, depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms) and protective factors (resilience, gender-related pride, family functioning, social support, gender-related community connectedness).MethodsParticipants were 30 GM adolescents, ages 13–17 years, from the U.S. community-based longitudinal Trans Teen and Family Narratives Project. Participants completed an online survey every 6 months across 2 years (5 waves; data collected 2015–2019).ResultsExposure to gender minority stressors was associated with higher odds of alcohol use. Across models, internalized transphobia (risk factor), resilience (protective factor), and gender-related pride (protective factor) were the most significant mediators of associations between gender minority stressors and substance use. Family functioning and social support (protective factors) significantly moderated the association between gender minority stressors and alcohol use, such that family functioning and social support were protective for alcohol use at lower levels of gender minority stress, but not at higher levels.ConclusionResults suggest that GM adolescents engage in substance use as a coping strategy in response to gender minority stressors. A number of hypothesized risk and protective factors mediated or moderated these associations. Future interventions with GM adolescents should focus efforts on addressing internalized transphobia as a risk factor and strengthening resilience, gender-related pride, and family functioning as protective factors for substance use.

Prevalence and correlates of substance use among transgender adults: a systematic narrative review

AimsTo understand the prevalence, patterns and correlates of substance use among transgender adults.BackgroundMinority stress theories suggest that the increasing rates of discrimination experienced by transgender people are precipitants of substance use. This is likely exacerbated by an inadequate provision of trans-inclusive substance misuse services. However, the exclusion of transgender people from the general substance misuse literature makes it difficult to determine the extent to which gender minority status influences substance use. A systematic review was undertaken to better understand the prevalence, patterns and correlates of substance use among this group.MethodIn accordance with the PRISMA guidance, a literature search was conducted to 29th May 2019 on PubMed, PsycINFO, EMBASE and Global Health databases. Primary quantitative studies, published in the English language, that reported the prevalence, patterns or correlates/risk factors of substance use by trans people were included, with no restriction on methodological design.Result651 unique records were identified by the search and 40 studies were included in the synthesis. While there was some suggestion of excess risk of substance use among trans people, there was insufficient evidence to estimate prevalence or quantify the risk of substance use among transgender people, relative to a cisgender population. However, this review identified several gender minority related correlates of substance use which are of relevance to clinicians working with transgender patients, including transphobic discrimination or violence, unemployment and sex work, gender dysphoria, high visual gender non-conformity and intersectional sexual minority status.ConclusionThere are currently significant gaps in the trans substance use literature, relating to the disproportionate investigation of transgender women with multiple intersectional disadvantages, who are not representative of the wider trans community. However, there is sufficient evidence to recommend screening for substance use when individuals report high levels of gender minority stress and to consider the use of integrated trauma-informed psychosocial interventions when managing problematic substance use in the transgender adult.

Systems of cissexism and the daily production of stress for transgender and gender diverse people

Background Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people encounter a range of minority stressors (e.g., harassment, victimization, misgendering) that impact many areas of life. Much of the empirical literature on gender minority stress has utilized frameworks that were developed with a focus on sexual orientation and were often limited to cisgender sexual minorities (lesbian, gay, bisexual, and other non-heterosexual individuals), leaving questions about how well existing models fit the experiences of TGD people. Aims To expand understandings of gender minority stress, we conducted a daily diary study where participants detailed the types of stressors they encountered on a daily basis for 56 days. Methods There were 181 TGD participants recruited into the study (M age = 25.6 years; SD = 5.6), with 167 retained in the daily surveys from which these analyses were conducted. Results The written responses revealed a variety of stressors, some of which are novel to the literature. Many participants reported instances of non-affirmation, such as misgendering, as well as vicarious stress when learning of oppressive experiences impacting other TGD people and seeing negative media portrayals of the lives of TGD individuals. Participants also reported bodily vigilance when being on alert for how others were perceiving their gender. Other stressors included rejection, political oppression, physical violence, uneasiness from others, and the enforcement of gender binarism. Discussion These findings highlight gaps in the existing understandings of marginalization for TGD people that must be addressed to ensure that frameworks include and center the experiences of gender minorities.

"Crisis Within the Walls": Rise of Intimate Partner Violence During the Pandemic, Indian Perspectives.

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has been a social “un-equalizer,” besides being a global health threat. Gender inequality has been globally prominent during the outbreak and the consequent lockdown. Although domestic abuse and intimate partner violence have increased due to chronic entrapment, overcrowding in families, enhanced substance use, distorted relationship dynamics, travel restrictions, and reduced healthcare access, coercive sexual practices have also been on the rise. In low- and middle-income countries, the lack of awareness, societal pressure, administrative apathy, fear of legal hassles, and inadequate knowledge–attitude–practice related to help-seeking lead to underreporting and mismanagement of domestic abuse, which can perpetuate its vicious cycle during the ongoing crisis. India, with its socio-culturally diverse population, has been one of the nations worst hit by the pandemic. With the rise in reports of gender-based violence on the premise of preexisting gender inequality and minority stress, concerns behind “closed doors” are as threatening as the infection itself. With this background, the authors highlight the backdrop of domestic violence as a “hidden pandemic” during the coronavirus disease 2019 crisis, drawing on perspectives from India and briefly reviewing the data from other nations. The role of mental health education and digital literacy as mitigating strategies is subsequently discussed.

Lifetime Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence and Health-Related Outcomes among Transgender Adults Aged 50 and Older.

Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been linked with poor health among young transgender adults, and cisgender lesbian, gay, bisexual (LGB), and heterosexual adults aged 50 years and older. The objective was to examine lifetime prevalence of IPV and its association with health, among transgender adults aged 50 and older. Consistent with the Gender Minority Stress Framework, any IPV was hypothesized to be associated with worse health. Responses from 3,462, transgender adults aged 50 and older from the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey were assessed for lifetime IPV and type. Logistic regression analyses, adjusted for demographic characteristics, examined the association between any IPV and substance use, and mental and general health measures. 57% of respondents reported any lifetime IPV, including transgender-specific (41%), physical (36%), psychological (29%), severe physical (24%), stalking (12%), and sexual (10%) abuse. Given any, compared to no, experience of IPV, the odds of having a disability (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.21, confidence interval [CI] = 1.00-1.46) and rating current health more negatively (AOR = 1.17, CI = 1.08-1.26); smoking (AOR = 1.31, CI = 1.08-1.58) and qualifying for screening for serious mental illness (AOR = 1.32, CI = 1.04-1.66) within the last month; and ever using drugs (AOR = 1.42, CI = 1.22-1.65) and attempting suicide (AOR = 1.98, CI = 1.66-2.46) were significantly higher; only binge drinking was unrelated to IPV. More than half of the respondents experienced IPV, with trans-specific IPV reported most commonly. Lifetime prevalence of any IPV was significantly associated with worse health. Recommendations include health surveillance that recognizes gender identity, and longitudinal study and routine screening of IPV, including trans-specific abuse, among transgender adults aged 50 and older.

Allostatic Stress and Inflammatory Biomarkers in Transgender and Gender Expansive Youth: Protocol for a Pilot Cohort Study.

BackgroundA growing number of adolescents are coming out as transgender and gender expansive (TGE). These teenagers have been shown to have significantly worse health outcomes than their cisgender peers. Hypotheses to explain this discrepancy are based on increased stress levels surrounding the societal acceptance of gender identity. In this context, elevated allostatic load (AL), which describes the wear and tear sustained by the body in response to repeated exposure to stress, has been associated with adverse long-term health outcomes.ObjectiveThis protocol aims to measure AL among TGE adolescents compared with their cisgender peers and assess how AL varies depending on psychological stress and perceived societal acceptance.MethodsThis is an observational proof-of-concept pilot study in which AL will be measured by assaying an array of inflammatory cytokines and cortisol in urine, saliva, and hair samples of TGE youth, and these parameters will be compared with those of age-matched control participants. A questionnaire will assess 4 aspects of psychosocial well-being: presence and management of depression and anxiety, gender identity support by family members, gender minority stress, and degree of perceived safety in the surrounding community. Samples and surveys will be collected at 3 visits (baseline, 6 months, and 12 months). This study will incorporate TGE coinvestigators to inform all aspects of design, data collection, and analysis and ensure that practices are carried out in a respectful and sensitive manner.ResultsAs of May 2021, the start of data collection for this project has continued to be postponed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has both impacted the functioning of the clinic and funding requests. We hope to begin participant recruitment and interviews with coinvestigators soon.ConclusionsWe hypothesize that AL will be primarily influenced by psychological well-being and perceived support and that it will be similar in TGE adolescents and in age-matched cisgender control participants when acceptance and perceived support are high. The results of this study have the potential to increase our understanding of the health challenges faced by TGE individuals during adolescence as well as to show that low levels of acceptance may have detrimental health outcomes secondary to elevated ALs; this may lead to the development of a biomarker profile to assess allostatic stress in TGE patients that can be used to guide management.International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)PRR1-10.2196/24100

Gender Minority Stress, Support, and Inflammation in Transgender and Gender-Nonconforming Youth.

Purpose: Transgender and gender-nonconforming (TGNC) youth often report higher rates of chronic social stressors such as victimization, discrimination, and rejection. Some of these gender-based stressors may have long-range physical health consequences through inflammation pathways. This study evaluates the feasibility and acceptability of adding biological measures of inflammation to an ongoing prospective clinical study of TGNC youth (ages 9-20 years), initiating affirming medical therapy at a large, urban children's hospital (N=56). We also examine the relationship between gender-based sources of stress and support with inflammation. This is the first study to explore how gender identity, social stressors, and social supports may contribute to poorer health in TGNC youth through inflammation and immune dysregulation pathways. Methods: Between October 2016 and August 2018, the study team collected dried blood spot (DBS) samples and health measures during clinical visits. Participants also completed computer-assisted surveys assessing gender minority stress and support during these visits. We used regression analysis to evaluate differences in C-reactive protein (CRP) controlling for demographics, health, gender-based stress, and supports. Results: The results from this study indicate that adding DBS samples to assess inflammation was feasible and acceptable in a clinical sample of TGNC youth seeking affirming-medical interventions. We found an association between greater inflammation and the composite score for greater gender-based stressors and lower gender-based supports using the Gender Minority Stress and Resilience Tool (GMSR); however, we did not find statistically significant differences in CRP associated with any of the individual GMSR subscales assessing various types of gender-based supports or stressors. Conclusion: More research is necessary to evaluate how different sources of gender-based support and stress relate to inflammation with larger sample sizes.

Together we stand, resilient we stay : The effect of minority stress and resilience on transgender mental health

IntroductionPrejudice, stigmatization and discrimination behaviors causes social stress and lead vulnerability to mental and physical health problems in Transgender and Gender Nonconforming (TGNC) individuals. The prevalence of mental disorders that can be associated with “minority group stress”, especially major depression and anxiety disorders, are known to be higher in the TGNC group in comparison to general population.ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to reveal the impact of minority stress on TGNC individuals’ mental health. Resilience factors like gender identity pride, social support, community connectedness expected to diminish the negative impact of stigmatization and discrimination.MethodsThe study sample consisted of 48 volunteered participants who consulted to Psychiatry Department for gender transition process. After semi-structured interview, applicants were given Gender Minority Stress and Resilience Scale-Turkish Form (GMSR-Tr), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Beck Anxiety Inventory (BAI), Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS).ResultsAnalysis revealed a negative correlation between the stress subscales of GMSR-Tr scale and BDI (p&lt; .001; rs= .727), BAI (p&lt; .001; rs= .649), PSS (p&lt; .001; rs= .671). For psychological resilience, the strongest positive relationship was found with the community connectedness subscale (p&lt; .001; rs= .864); the strongest negative relationship was observed with the internalized transphobia subscale (p&lt; .001; rs= .750).ConclusionsOur study presented the importance of internalized transphobia and protective effect of resilience factors for mental health outcomes of TGNC individuals exposed to minority stress. The depression, anxiety and stress scores decreases with increasing psychological resilience.

Double jeopardy: Minority stress and the influence of transgender identity and race/ethnicity

Background: Prior research suggests transgender individuals with multiple minority statuses experience higher psychological stress compared to their singly disadvantaged counterparts, and both Black, Indigenous, People of Color (BIPOC), and transgender minorities experience more frequent and severe forms of discrimination than White and cisgender individuals. Aims: This study aims to examine racial/ethnic differences in gender-related discrimination and psychological distress within a sample of transgender individuals. Methods: Using data from a convenience sample of 99 self-identified transgender adults recruited through North American LGBTQ organizations, data were analyzed to determine the relationship between race/ethnicity, gender minority stress, and psychological distress. Results: When White and BIPOC participants are compared, no significant group differences were found in levels of gender discrimination or victimization. However, some individual racial/ethnic groups reported significantly higher or lower scores and results indicate that changes in reported gender minority stress are in fact positively correlated with reported psychological distress. Conclusion: This research highlights that BIPOC are a heterogeneous group; by solely examining race/ethnicity as a binary variable, studies mask potential important differences among different groups.

‘It’s how the world around you treats you for being trans’: mental health and wellbeing of transgender people in Aotearoa New Zealand

ABSTRACT Globally, transgender people have been described as a highly marginalised population due to cisgenderism that delegitimises their gender identities and expressions. Despite robust evidence from many countries noting the association of discrimination and stigma for being transgender with heightened mental health risks, qualitative research that examines the nuances of mental health indicators using health equity frameworks has been scant both in Aotearoa/New Zealand and overseas. Using an inductive thematic approach, this paper analysed 222 open-text responses in the mental health section of the 2018 Counting Ourselves: Aotearoa New Zealand, Trans and Non-binary Health Survey. Our findings showed four overarching themes: gender-affirming healthcare, mental healthcare services and accessibility, gender minority stress, and self-affirmation and social support. Participants’ narratives described pervasive gender minority stress experiences in gender-affirming and mental healthcare services, including unmet healthcare needs, lack of competency in healthcare delivery, and pathologisation of their genders. In social settings, our participants commonly reported discrimination and violence, although they also reported that self-affirmation strategies and social support offset the impacts of gender minority stress on their mental health. The current findings indicate the importance of exploring mental health outcomes for transgender people in relation to cisgenderism and resultant gender minority stress.

Gender Nonconformity and Minority Stress Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Individuals: A Meta-Analytic Review

Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals are less healthy than heterosexual individuals, and minority stress endured by LGB individuals contributes to these health disparities. However, within-groups differences in minority stress experiences among LGB individuals remain underexplored. Individuals are more likely to be categorized as LGB if they exhibit gender nonconformity, so gender nonconformity could influence concealability of sexual orientation among LGB individuals, carrying important implications for the visibility of their stigmatized sexual orientation identity and for how they experience and cope with minority stress. Through a meta-analytic review, we examined how gender nonconformity was associated with minority stress experiences among LGB individuals. Thirty-seven eligible studies were identified and included in analyses. Results indicate gender nonconformity is associated with experiencing more prejudice events, less concealment of sexual orientation, lower internalized homonegativity, and higher expectations of rejection related to sexual orientation among LGB individuals. Gender nonconformity is more strongly associated with experiencing prejudice events among gay and bisexual men than among lesbian and bisexual women. Gender nonconformity is systematically associated with minority stress experiences among LGB individuals, and future research must measure and examine gender nonconformity when investigating the role of minority stress in degraded health outcomes among LGB populations.

Daily stressors and diurnal cortisol among sexual and gender minority young adults.

Minority stress may contribute to poor health by dysregulating stress response systems, including diurnal cortisol rhythms. However, few studies have examined the association between sexual and gender minority stress and diurnal cortisol in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) individuals. The current investigation tested whether the daily experience of minority stressors is uniquely related to diurnal cortisol above and beyond general stressors. One hundred and 21 sexual and gender minority young adults (aged 18-35, 54.5% female) completed initial and daily evening questionnaires for 7 consecutive days to document daily general stressors and LGBT stressors. A randomly selected subset (n = 58) also provided salivary cortisol samples at wake, 45-min postwake, 12-hr postwake, and bedtime. Controlling for covariates (sex assigned at birth, wake time, bedtime, and day of the week) and general stressors, individuals who reported more LGBT stressors across the week displayed elevated cortisol levels at wake, t(491) = 9.68, p = .002 and 45-min postwake, t(492) = 6.41, p = .011, relative to individuals who reported fewer LGBT stressors. In contrast, after controlling for covariates, the frequency of general stressors only predicted cortisol 12 hr postwake, t(785) = 2.02, p = .043. Diurnal cortisol was unrelated to within-person fluctuations in LGBT and general stressors. Results imply that the experience of everyday minority stressors is uniquely related to diurnal cortisol and may have implications for the mental and physical health of LGBT adults. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Relations Between Sexual and Gender Minority Stress, Personal Hardiness, and Psychological Stress in Emerging Adulthood: Examining Indirect Effects via Human-animal Interaction

This study examines the role of human-animal interaction (HAI) in relations between sexual and gender minority (SGM) stress, personal hardiness, and psychological stress during emerging adulthood. Data for the current sample reflect 136 SGM emerging adults between the ages of 18 to 21 years who reported living with a companion animal in the past year (37.5% racial/ethnic minority, 49.2% transgender or gender -expansive, 98.5% sexual minority). Mediation was tested using structural equation modeling with a bootstrapping approach. We found evidence of an indirect effect of microaggressions on personal hardiness. Specifically, increases in microaggressions were associated with increases in HAI; in turn, increases in HAI were associated with higher levels of personal hardiness. No other statistically significant indirect effects were identified in our model. We discuss the implications of these findings for enhancing community capacity to empower and facilitate successful coping among SGM emerging adults.